Leopard
Panthera pardus
S. Clayton
Description
Previously nine leopard (Panthera pardus) subspecies were described:
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African leopard P. p. pardus occurring in Africa
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Arabian leopard P. p. nimr inhabiting Arabia
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Persian leopard P. p. saxicolor from Central Asia
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Javan leopard P. p. melas occurring in Java
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Sri Lankan leopard P. p. kotiya from Sri Lanka
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Indian leopard P. p. fusca inhabiting the Indian subcontinent
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Indochinese leopard P. p. delacouri occurring from southeast Asia into southern China
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North China leopard P. p. japonensis from northern China and
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Amur leopard P. p. orientalis described from the Russian Far East, Korean peninsula and northeastern China.
However, based on more recent genetic studies only eight leopard subspecies are proposed:
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Panthera pardus pardus in Africa
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Panthera pardus tulliana, including cicsaucasica and saxicolor, in Turkey, Caucasus, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan
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Panthera pardus fusca in India
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Panthera pardus kotiya in Sri Lanka
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Panthera pardus delacouri in South-East Asia and probably southern China
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Panthera pardus orientalis, including japonensis, in Eastern Asia from the Russian Far East to China
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Panthera pardus melas on Java and
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Panthera pardus nimr on the Arabian Peninsula
More genetic sampling and analyses throughout the leopard's range is needed to clarify the number of subspecies as some results for example indicate that all Asian subspecies, excluding melas, possibly form one single subspecies.
There is a high degree of variation in size and colouring of leopards across their broad geographical range. Leopards in Africa are typically the largest and can weigh up to 90 kg, but in the mountains of Iran and Central Asia, they can also attain large sizes. Leopards from the Arabian Peninsula are of small to average size (generally only weighting around 25 kg) and are pale in colour. Usually, the leopard’s fur is yellowish to olive with black spots. Individuals have unique patterns. In Africa, melanistic individuals are rare but in humid forest habitats as in Java and Malaysia melanism is quite common. Melanistic individuals have also been reported from the forests of the western coast of India and northeast India. The colour and patterns of the leopard’s fur seem to be associated with habitat type. For example, in Africa the leopards inhabiting the savannah have a rufous to ochraceous colour, leopards in deserts are paler in colour, with a more greyish colour in cooler areas. Individuals from the rainforests are darker and have a golden colour while leopards inhabiting high mountains are even darker than the ones from the rainforests. Leopards in Central Asia are often referred to as “snow leopards” in local parlance because of their light colour and long-haired winter coat.
The leopard has very muscular, relatively short legs with broad paws. It has a long body and tail which helps in tree climbing. The sexes show marked differences in size and physical features which indicates different feeding ecology. Despite its relatively small body size, the leopard is still capable of taking large prey. Its skull is massive, giving ample room for the attachment of powerful jaw muscles. Its whiskers are particularly long and there are often several extra-long hairs in the eyebrows, protecting the eyes and assisting movement through vegetation in darkness. Its scapula is adapted for the attachment of powerful muscles that mobilise the thorax, enhancing its ability to climb trees. The leopard can live without water for periods of time, satisfying its moisture requirements entirely from prey.
Weight
17 - 90 kg
Body Length
91 - 191 cm
Tail Length
51 - 101 cm
Longevity
13 - 21 years
Litter Size
1 - 4 cubs
P. Meier
IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group 2022. Panthera pardus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2024-2
Status and Distribution
The leopard is considered to be Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List based on population reduction in the past of over 30% due to habitat loss, prey depletion and exploitation including persecution due to livestock predation, illegal wildlife trade, harvesting for medicinal and ceremonial use and poorly managed trophy hunting. The leopard`s geographic range is quite wide. It inhabits Africa and Asia and ranges from most of sub-Saharan Africa over the Arabic peninsula, south-western and eastern Turkey, through southwest Asia and the Caucasus up to the Himalayas, South Asia, Indochina, Peninsular Malaysia, China, and the Russian Far East. It occurs also on the islands of Java and Sri Lanka. In some areas of Africa and tropical Asia the leopard is quite common. However, its populations have decreased and have become isolated in many regions and it has vanished from large parts of its historic range. From 2016 to 2023 a reduction of 11% in extant leopard range has been recorded. The species has declined across much of North, East and West Africa, the Middle East, East Asia, South-east Asia and China and has faced regional extirpations due to habitat loss and fragmentation, prey loss, and poaching for the illegal wildlife trade. Only in Northeast China and Russian Far East the breeding range of the leopard increased during the last 20 years. In North Africa, the leopard is on the verge of extinction. Here, it has most probably been extirpated from 100% of its former range and it is unclear if any remnant, isolated populations persist at all. The previously confirmed populations in Morocco and Algeria are thought to have vanished. Throughout much of West Africa, the leopard has become rare; it has completely disappeared from parts of the Western Sahel. Leopards are now generally restricted to a few protected areas located between Senegal and Nigeria. In Central Africa leopard range is mainly reduced in areas of high human activity. Populations in East Africa have shrunk. In South Africa, its stronghold, the leopard seems to have maintained stable populations. Leopard populations in non-human dominated areas of Angola, Zambia, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe seem to be healthy but decreasing. Leopards seem to have a wide distribution in Iran. There are a few records of the species from Iraq and Turkey in the Zagros Mountains and a small population was confirmed in the Zangezur Ridge, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Leopards are widespread across India and Sri Lanka. In South-east Asia, leopards have been extirpated or functionally extirpated from most of the range with populations only remaining in Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia, and Java, Indonesia. The population previously known as the North China Leopard is now restricted to small, isolated protected areas in Central China. In recent years, leopards have disappeared from Cambodia, southern China, Lao PDR and Viet Nam. One wild leopard population remains in the Russian Far East and nearby Northeast China following huge conservation efforts. The leopard is now possibly extinct in Cambodia, Gambia, DPR Korea, Lao PDR, Lesotho, Mali, Tajikistan, and Viet Nam and is regionally extinct in Algeria, Hong Kong, Israel, Jordan, Republic of Korea, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, Palestine, Singapore, Syria, Togo, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates.
Leopard density varies with prey biomass, habitat type, and threat presence and intensity. The density can range from one individual/100 km² to over 30 individuals/100 km². Highest densities are found in protected areas of mesic woodland savannahs in East and southern Africa.
Habitat
The leopard is highly adaptable and can inhabit a wide range of different ecosystems, with extreme variation in conditions and habitat types. It occurs in habitats ranging from tropical rainforest to temperate deciduous and alpine areas, up to high mountain slopes, and is also found in savanna grasslands, bushland, dry scrub, grasslands, and deserts. In northwest Africa, Iran, and the Caucasus, pine forest and Mediterranean scrub are also inhabited.
In Africa, the habitats that support highest densities are woodland and grassland savannah but leopards also inhabit mountain areas, coastal scrub, swamps, semi-desert and deserts. In Morocco, the leopard has been recorded up to 3,000 m, in sub-Saharan Africa up to 4,600 m on Mt Kenya and up to 5,200 m in the Himalayas.
On the Indian subcontinent, the leopard occurs in various habitats such as forests, tea gardens, rocky outcrops, dry forests, and human used landscapes. In southwest and central Asia, leopards are now restricted to remote mountain areas and rugged foothill regions. In Turkmenistan, the leopard has been recorded up to 1,800 m, in Saudi Arabia up to 2,600 m, in Iran up to 3,200 m, and in the Himalaya even up to 5,200 m.
P. Meier
Ecology and Behaviour
The leopard is solitary and territorial, but an adult female can be accompanied by cubs which disperse after 2–3 years of age. In studies undertaken in savannas and woodlands, it was found that leopards are mainly active between sunset and sunrise, but populations in undisturbed rainforest areas in Gabon were found to be largely diurnal. It uses scent marks and vocalization to communicate. In some regions, tree scratching is used to mark territory. The leopard is a visual hunter in open habitats and uses high points such as trees to locate its prey. In open habitats, the leopard hunts by stalking from a low position, with long periods of time resting motionlessly if needed. In dense tropical forests, the leopard predominantly seems to hunt from an ambush, targeting well-used game trails or fruiting trees that attract ungulate prey. It attacks from very close range with a short burst of speed and a powerful strike of the front paw. In a study in the Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa, leopards preferred hunting in habitats where prey was easier to catch rather in preference to areas where prey was more abundant. The probability of making a kill was highest in habitats with intermediate cover. It is suggested that prey selection is determined by energy expenditure and individual leopards may specialise on different habitat types. In the Welgevonden Private Game Reserve, South Africa, female leopards showed a preference for hunting in mixed closed woodland and tall open woodland, and not for the grasslands where prey biomass estimates were highest. Forest leopards are mainly diurnal and crepuscular hunters following the activity patterns of their main prey species. The leopard is an excellent climber and prey species are often dragged up into trees for eating and caching in areas where leopard occur sympatrically with larger scavengers such as lions (Panthera leo) and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta). The leopard also retreats up a tree in the face of direct aggression from such competitors.
The home ranges of leopards in protected areas in Africa are approximately 30-78 km² (males) and 15-38 km² (females). In mountainous terrain the home ranges seem to be much larger at over 300 to 400 km². In the Mangwe area in Zimbabwe, the home range of one male reached 263 km² and that of two females 31 and 45 km² respectively. In Central Kalahari leopards were recorded to have home ranges of up to 2,182 km². Home ranges of females and males generally overlap but home ranges overlap between males do so only to a limited extent. Mean daily distance travelled in the Waterberg mountain area of Limpopo was 8.6 km (male) and 6.1 km (female); in Namibia and the Khalahari, distances were larger with mean daily values of 12.2 km and 14.3 km for males and 6.8 and 13.4 km for females respectively. In Thailand, the home range of a female was 8.8 km² and 17.3-18 km² for two adult males respectively. Another study in Thailand recorded mean home ranges of 26 +/- 8.2 km² for six females and 45.7 +/- 14.8 km² for two males. In Bardia National Park in Nepal, two males ranged over 47 and 48 km² and a female over 17 km². In human dominated landscapes of India, two adult females had home ranges of 8 and 11 km² and a sub adult male had a home range of 15 km².
Dispersal of leopards is generally sex biased: females are philopatric and males disperse over long distances away from their natal area. In southern Africa a subadult male leopard dispersed over a minimum distance of 352 km between his natal range and the site where he died. The sex ratio of resident adults is approximately 1m:1.8f.
Reproduction may take place throughout the year. In southern Africa, there may be birthing peaks during the birth season of the leopard’s main prey species, the impala. In the Sabi Sand Game Reserve, South Africa, litters were born in all months of the year but most females gave birth during the wet season, especially in December. In non- tropical Asia, however, the reproduction is seasonal. In north-eastern Iran, the mating season starts in mid-January and peaks in mid-February.
In the Karongwe conservancy, South Africa, the oestrus cycle was reported to be on average around 23 days, whereas in captivity, the mean inter-oestrus period was found to be around 46 days. The gestation lasts for 90-105 days. Age at first reproduction for females is on average 35 (24-46) months and for males 36-48 months. The interbirth interval averages from 15 months to over 2 years. In the Sabi Sand Game Reserve, females gave birth on average 6 month after their previous litter became independent or 8 months after a litter was lost. Age of independence is 7-18 months. Siblings may remain together for several months before separating. The age at the last reproduction is on average 8.5 years but can take place up to the age of 16. There is one incidence known where a 15-year-old female leopard adopted the 7-month-old cub of her 9-year-old daughter. This adoption event was most probably motivated by kin selection.
Cub mortality is quite high and varies between 41% to 90% in the first year. In the Kruger National Park annual subadult mortality was 32%, compared with an average mortality of adults of 19%. In the Phinda Private Game Reserve, mortality rate of juveniles was approximately 42%. Cub survival did not differ between male and female and did not depend on the season (dry, wet) of birth. Cub survival, however, seemed to be influenced by the mother’s age: cub survival decreased after females reached 9 years and dropped sharply after a female reached 14 years. Mortality rates of subadult leopards varied between sexes: males had a mortality rate of 29% and females one of 15%. Intra-specific competition caused most of the deaths followed by human-related mortality. Male mortality was mostly due to human activity and was significantly higher than the mortality rate of females, which was mainly caused by natural causes. High turnover rate of males can have a significant impact on the reproduction rate of a population. A high turnover could increase the likelihood of contact between unfamiliar individuals and thus promote intraspecific competition and increase infanticide. In Sabi Sand Game Reserve, male leopards were responsible for 40% of cub mortality. Infanticidal males were typically unrelated to their victims. Infanticide in leopards seems to mainly be an adaptive behaviour which provides reproductive benefits to perpetrators. If the unweaned offspring of a female is killed then the interbirth interval is shortened and the chance of the perpetrator to mate is increased. Females appear to adopt several strategies to minimise the risk of infanticide. It seems that the reproductive success of females is mainly regulated by top-down processes and it is suggested that infanticide is the key factor shaping the socio-spatial ecology of leopards. Prey availability may play a larger role in cub mortality in less productive habitats or in populations below carrying capacity.
P. Meier
Prey
The diet of leopards is influenced by many factors such as prey density and composition, but also by other sympatric predators. Additionally, leopard predation is affected by environmental factors such as vegetation cover and anthropogenic pressure such as prey depletion as a result of overhunting of bushmeat.
The leopard has an exceptional ability to adapt to changes in prey availability. Although it prefers medium sized ungulates with a weight of 10-40 kg, it can kill prey up to 2 or 3 times larger than itself. Small prey is mostly taken opportunistically, and primates, hares, rodents, large birds, pangolins, and small carnivores can form an important part of its diet where large ungulates are less frequent. In some parts of its range domestic animals are an important part of its diet or even are the dominant prey. The leopard’s ability to use trees for caching surplus meat enables them to coexist with lions and tigers, and to withstand pressure from scavengers.
In Africa, the leopard preys on a variety of mammalian species from large ungulates such as elands (Tragelaphus oryx; males reaching 900 kg) to small species such as rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) (4 kg). In sub-Saharan Africa, 92 prey species were documented. Leopards prey on, beside other species, impala (Aepyceros melampus), grey duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), red duiker (Cephalophus natalensis), reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), and warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus). In the Comoé National Park, Côte d’Ivoire, leopards preyed mainly upon small to medium-sized ungulates with preference for duikers and bushbucks, but also took kob (Kobus kob) and oribi (Ourebia ourebi). Additionally, primates such as colobus monkeys and guenons, and large rodents were consumed. In the Lopé National Park, Gabon, the most important prey species (with regard to prey mass) was red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus) followed by forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) and cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus). In the alpine zone of Mount Kenya, rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) was the most frequent prey species followed by grooved-toothed rats (Mylomys dybowskii).
In Asia, the leopard preys on species such as muntjac, chital deer, mountain goats, roe and sika deer, hog deer, tufted deer and langur. In tropical forest, arboreal animals are taken too. In Israel’s Judean Desert leopards seem to prey mainly on rock hyrax, ibex, and porcupine. In Oman, ibex, hyrax, and the Arabian red-legged partridge were reported as principal prey species. The Arabian leopard takes mostly small to medium sized prey such as gazelles, rock hyrax, hares, birds, lizards, and insects. In northern Iran, wild pigs are reported as the major prey, and in the Caucasus Mountains, leopards are believed to prey mainly on wild goats and mouflon. In Thailand, the most important prey species were hog badger, muntjac and wild pig. Leopard diet in India consists of medium sized deer, primates, livestock, and other domestic animals such as dogs, cats and pigs. In human-dominated landscapes, the high density of livestock in India provides a good prey base for leopards.
Main Threats
The main threats to the leopard are of anthropogenic origin. Continuing persecution by humans, habitat loss and fragmentation, prey depletion, illegal wildlife trade, illegal retaliatory killing, and poorly managed trophy hunting are the main problems leading to leopard population reduction.
Human populations expand and natural habitat is converted to urban landscape, into agricultural fields, palm oil and rubber plantations, or livestock farms. The expansion of ranch land for livestock breeding not only impacts the habitat of leopards but can also depress wild ungulate populations on which the leopard depends. Habitat loss and fragmentation is in some regions mainly caused by deforestation. The deforestation rate in South-east Asia is the highest of all tropical regions and is still increasing. Prey species are also reduced by overhunting. Reduced prey availability is a major factor negatively affecting the leopard. For example, in the African forests the bushmeat trade has resulted in the so called “empty forest syndrome” which means that the forest habitats remain quite intact but that the prey species have been highly reduced. This is also taking place across large areas of savanna Africa, resulting in collapses in prey populations but has also been recorded in Asia, where prey species are also under threat of regional extinction throughout tropical forests due to extensive poaching. In intact rainforest, the major threat is probably competition with humans for prey.
Conflicts between leopards and humans occur across its range. Illegal killing, mostly as retribution for livestock or game predation, is a significant problem. In southern Africa, the predation on valuable game animals leads to retaliation killing of leopards. Additionally, in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, farmers are allowed to kill predators which are considered a threat to life and property. Permits are often distributed retroactively.
A rapidly increasing threat is also the poisoning of carcasses. The leopard is particularly vulnerable to baited traps as it patrols small home ranges along regularly used trails. An assessment of mortalities of Persian leopards in Iran showed that 70% of the animals died due to hunting and poisoning. In Iraq, recent records indicate that leopards are removed at unsustainable levels. Diseases such as rabies, canine distemper, and bovine tuberculosis can also be a threat to the leopard. For example, for the Amur leopard with its small population size, a disease outbreak could significantly affect the population or even lead to extinction
In some parts of its range the leopard is legally hunted as a trophy species. The impact of this hunting is not fully clear. There is a need for further research on harvest quotas and hunting practices. However, poorly managed trophy hunting can be detrimental to leopard populations. Unsustainable hunting activities and uneven distribution of hunting effort were shown to lead to high mortality rates and low recruitment rates in leopard populations. Overhunting of males can lower female reproductive output, as turnover in resident males can lead to increased rates of infanticide and reduced rates of conception.
The trade in leopard fur was a major threat to the leopard in some areas during the 1960s and 1970s, before the market collapsed due to changing public opinion and the imposition of international trade controls under CITES. However, leopards are still poached for the skin trade and traditional medicines in many African countries, mainly for the domestic markets. Skins and canines are still widely traded. Formerly predominantly used locally in traditional rituals, skins and canines are now sold openly in villages and urban markets to foreign workers and military personnel. In Africa alone some 4,500-7,000 leopards are killed each year only to meet the demand for leopard skins by followers of the Nazareth Baptist (Shembe) Church. Targeted poaching for wildlife trade is also probably the greatest factor that contributed to the recent range collapse of leopards in South-east Asia. Leopards are killed not only for their skins but also for other body parts which are used medicinal in eastern cultures. Leopard parts are used as substitutes for tiger parts for medicinal purposes in China and South-east Asia. Leopard skins are highly sought as luxury items reaching prices up to $3,000. In India, the illegal trade in leopard body parts, and the human-leopard conflict are both serious problems and the cause of significant mortalities. As Indian leopards are widespread outside protected areas, they are an easy target for the illegal wildlife trade. Poaching of leopards for the wildlife trade is increasing and around 4 leopards per week are poached in India. Illegal trade of leopard parts is comparable to that of tigers in Asian range states. This trade can have significant impacts on local leopard populations.
If the leopard is provided with a minimum of suitable habitat cover, enough prey, and is not persecuted, it is fairly tolerant of habitat alterations and can even persist close to human populations due to its adaptive behaviour. However, leopards have still a limited level of ecological resilience to human-caused habitat fragmentation and are increasingly restricted to conservation areas. Generally, leopards require large contiguous habitats with low human impacts to reproduce successfully. In the African rainforests leopards seem to exhibit a strong functional and numerical response to competition with human hunters for prey and leopards are absent close to settlements where hunting activities are highest.
With the documented decreases in leopard range, loss of genetic diversity is also a concern. Loss of genetic diversity leads to the loss of potentially adaptive diversity which is particularly worrying in the light of climate change and increasingly isolated populations. Small and isolated populations may also be at risk of inbreeding depression. In the Amur population there have been cases of physical deformities due to low genetic viability.
Conservation Efforts and Protection Status
The leopard is included in the Appendix I of CITES. It is largely protected across its range. Hunting is prohibited or restricted to “problem” animals in Angola, Algeria, Armenia, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Georgia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Russia, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Togo, Turkmenistan, Uganda, and Uzbekistan. Killing “problem” leopards occurs in some countries and is generally permitted. The legal international traffic is limited to an annual quota for export of sport hunting skins and trophies. Trade in leopard skins is legally restricted to 2,560 individuals across 11 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. There is no legal protection in Gambia, Lebanon, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates. No information is available for Azerbaijan, Burundi, Chad, Guinea, Iraq, Libya, Kuwait, Syria, Tajikistan, and Yemen. In Afghanistan, the leopard is protected (hunting and trading prohibited) and has recently been placed on the country's Protected Species List.
Leopards are extremely adaptable species but to increase their range, it is important that ecological and social carrying capacity is increased. Throughout its range it is important to reduce the source of conflict between human and leopards and to raise awareness, involve local communities, and establish protected areas to ensure survival of the species. Compensation procedures for depredated livestock and improved livestock husbandry practices and management measures, reducing the risk of depredation, are important as they can increase the tolerance of people towards leopards and thus reduce conflict. Translocation or removal of problem animals does not address the source of the problem and is not a suitable mitigation of such conflicts in the long term, sometimes, even aggravating the situation. Additionally, habitat fragmentation and loss should be mitigated as much as possible. In Africa, most leopards live outside protected areas and mortality rates of leopards are much higher here or in border areas. In West Asia, protected areas are too small to support viable leopard populations. Therefore, it is important to increase the size of such areas and to broaden conservation measures to take into consideration areas outside of protected regions. Human activities must be addressed on both sides of reserve boundaries to assure the long-term survival of leopards.
Some conservation plans are underway such as the one for the endangered Arabian leopard and for the Persian leopard and measures to reduce human-leopard conflict are taking place. Leopard population recovery efforts are currently under way with reintroduction projects in Sochi, Greater Caucasus and the Russian far East. Nonetheless, there is still a lot to do to assure the long-term protection of the leopard throughout its range. The reduced leopard population in Arabia, for example, requires immediate action to avoid further losses or even extinction as numbers are decreasing drastically. Efforts to reintroduce the Arabian Leopard from local captive facilities are being explored by researchers. Recent work in India indicates that some communities revere leopards in the form of a large cat deity called waghoba or waghro.
Within Asia, especially in Indo-Malaya and China, better protection from illegal trade must be addressed. There is a lack in information for some of the leopard subspecies such as for P. p. delacouri. It is important to get more information on these subspecies to be able to prioritize conservation measures.
In areas where leopards are subject to hunting or persecution, it is important to take numerical and functional metrics of their population dynamics into account when developing conservation strategies. Activities such as trophy hunting that may artificially elevate turnover among breeding males may increase rates of infanticide to unsustainable levels. It must be assured that trophy hunting takes place in a sustainable way and is well managed. It has been found, that an age-based hunting approach seems applicable to leopards as it is possible to identify the age of leopards at sight. A safe harvest is more likely if hunting is restricted to male leopards over 7 years, when they are old enough to have reared their first cohort of offspring to independence. Alternatively, quotas should be reduced to more conservative levels. An effort should be made to ensure hunting pressure is equitably distributed throughout available leopard range based on ecological boundaries rather than administrative ones. Moreover, in order to hunt leopard populations sustainably, robust density estimates are needed together with thorough monitoring programmes to assure a sustainable harvest without harming the population. Recently, population surveys have taken place within protected areas across leopard range. This has improved understanding of leopard status with greater resolution and in some cases generated population estimates. Increased population surveys are recommended, in particular across Central Africa, Angola, South-east Asia, and South-west China. To address the killing of leopards for their furs used in traditional ceremonies, conservationists in South Africa have partnered with textile companies and communities to provide faux-fur alternatives.
Namibia has conducted an assessment of trophy hunting. Zambia has placed a moratorium on leopard and lion hunting in 2013. In South Africa, Mozambique and Botswana, researchers have developed regional studies of the hunting quota system. Beside others, trophy quality and geographical distribution of permits have been analysed and management measures suggested. In 2014, sport hunting has been banned in Botswana, and South Africa placed a moratorium on leopard trophy hunting for the year 2016.
M. Pittet
