Arabian Leopard
Panthera pardus nimr
H. Hikmani
Status and Distribution
The Arabian Leopard is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List due to its small and declining population, estimated at 100–120 individuals, with only 70–84 of them being mature (assuming 70% of the total population size are mature individuals). The species is mainly found in two isolated subpopulations in Oman and Yemen, each believed to hold around 50 individuals. A very small number may still exist in Saudi Arabia, likely fewer than 20. Overall, the species continues to face a decline due to threats such as habitat degradation, reduced range, and possible exploitation, although there are some signs of range expansion in northern Oman.
The Arabian Leopard currently has a Species Recovery Score of 13%, placing it in the Critically Depleted category under the Green Status of Species assessment. This low score reflects its likely Absence from three of five spatial units, and its threatened status in the remaining two. Despite this severely depleted status, the subspecies holds a High Conservation Legacy; Conservation measures such as the establishment of protected areas, legal protections against killing, and livestock compensation schemes have helped slow its decline and averted extinction. If these efforts continue and are complemented by effective ex situ breeding and reintroduction programmes, the Recovery Score could potentially double over the next decade(Medium Conservation Gain). In contrast, without any conservation action, the subspecies would face continued and accelerated decline, with the worst-case scenario being extinction within ten years. However, given the short time frame, it is more likely the subspecies would persist—in reduced numbers—in the two spatial units, where it is currently Present. Accordingly, Conservation Dependence is assessed as zero. Looking ahead 100 years, there is High Recovery Potential; If all plausible conservation strategies are implemented the Arabian Leopard could be Present across all spatial units and most likely Functional in two spatial units. In a best-case scenario, it could even be Functional across its entire indigenous range (fully recovered). Conservation has played, and will continue to play, a vital role in the survival of the Arabian Leopard. While its future remains uncertain, the potential for recovery is significant—provided that long-term, coordinated conservation efforts are sustained and intensified.
The Arabian Leopard occurs in the Middle East, remaining in Oman, Yemen and possibly Saudi Arabia.
Oman:
Historically widespread, the Arabian Leopard is now restricted to the Dhofar Mountains in southern Oman, occurring in both arid and monsoon habitats of Jabal Al Qamar, Jabal Al Qara and particularly Jabal Samhan, which presents its last stronghold. It is mainly confined to the south facing escarpments but also inhabits the deep, sparsely vegetated wadis that extend northward through the southern Najd. Occasionally, it may descend to the lower southern foothills and, more rarely, reach coastal beaches.
Saudi Arabia:
The Arabian Leopard was formerly widespread in the western highlands of Saudi Arabia, especially in the Asir and Hijaz Mountains, but the last confirmed sighting was in 1997. Despite extensive surveys, no leopards have been detected recently, and it is now believed that no functional populations remain. Occasional dispersal from Yemen is possible, but unlikely due to a border fence.
Yemen:
Previously widespread, the leopard has been driven out of much of its range due to persecution and capture for captivity. However, camera trap and scat data and reports confirm continued presence in in the northern part of the western highlands (between Sa’dah and the Saudi border), the central-western highlands (Wada’a, Haijjah, Jebel Bura’a), south Yemen (between Ta’azz, Ad Dali, Lahij, Abyan, Al Bayda’ and Shabwah governorates), and Hawf in Al Mahra. There have been several records from leopards being killed and captured, mostly from southern Yemen.
Israel & State of Palestine:
Previously present in the Negev Highlands desert and Al-Khalil Mountains in the West Bank, the Arabian Leopard is now considered locally extinct in both areas.
UAE, Jordan, and Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula:
Historically the Arabian Leopard occurred in western and southern Jordan, in western Al Hajar and Musandam Mountains in UAE, and possibly in the Sinai Peninsula. However no evidence of wild leopards has been found in these regions since the late 20th century, and thus it is considered locally extinct.
Habitat
The Arabian Leopard primarily inhabits arid and hyper-arid desert and semi-desert regions. However, in southern Arabia, which is influenced by the South-west Monsoon, it is also found in tropical and subtropical environments. While it likely once ranged more widely through lowlands, it is now mostly restricted to high, rugged mountains and escarpments that are difficult for humans to access. In Oman’s Dhofar region and the adjacent Hawf protected area in Yemen, the leopard lives in rich monsoon woodlands, fog oases, and mountainous, south exposed grasslands. In the western mountains of Yemen and the Asir mountains of Saudi Arabia, it also occupies high-altitude forests.
M. Pittet
Arabian Leopard - Panthera pardus ssp. Nimr
The Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) was initially identified as a subspecies based on a small number of samples. More recent research, drawing on a wider range of material from across the Arabian Peninsula, has confirmed its evolutionary distinctiveness from other leopard subspecies and suggests it may have been present in the Arabian Peninsula since the end of the Lower Pleistocene. Its closest relative is the African Leopard (Panthera pardus pardus).
Ecology and Behaviour
Both male and female leopards in Oman use large territories. One tracked female used a ranged of 64 km², while a male covered 168 km². Males share their ranges with females, and while their territories overlap with other males, they avoid being in the same place at the same time, likely using scent markings. In southern Oman, the Arabian Leopard is mostly crepuscular but has been camera trapped throughout the day. It is generally solitary, except during mating or when females are raising their young.
M. Pittet
Prey
The subspecies has a broad diet that includes both large and small prey. In Oman, it feeds on animals such as Nubian ibex, Arabian gazelle, Cape hare, porcupines, rodents, birds, and insects. Rock hyrax appears to be a particularly important food source, especially in areas lacking larger herbivores. Leopards also prey on livestock, including goats, cattle, and camels, although this typically occurs when natural prey is depleted. In the western mountains of Yemen and the Asir Mountains of Saudi Arabia, the leopard’s diet may also include baboons.
Main Threats
Arabian Leopards face a range of threats, including illegal killing—often by livestock owners—prey depletion, habitat destruction, mining and quarrying, trophy hunting, and capture for the illegal pet trade. Of these, retaliatory killings in response to livestock predation and habitat loss are considered most critical. Although in Yemen, trophy hunting is considered the main reason for leopard killing.
In the past, leopards in Oman were primarily threatened by persecution from livestock owners. Today, the main threat is habitat destruction, driven by overgrazing and the spread of human settlements, which also reduces wild prey populations. This increases the risk of conflict with livestock owners, as leopards may resort to preying on livestock. However, conservation efforts in recent years have helped reduce incidents of direct killing or capture for trade. While there is no current evidence of illegal trade within Oman, it has been used as a transit route for leopards taken from Yemen.
In Saudi Arabia, key threats include habitat degradation and fragmentation due to road construction, overgrazing, urban expansion, and mining and querying. The decline in prey species and retaliatory killings also pose major risks, and illegal trade in leopard skins remains a concern.
In Yemen, direct killing is a major threat alongside urban development and illegal trade. Since the 1990s, leopards captured in Yemen have been sold to both government and private collections across the region. This continues today, driven by demand and lacking conservation support. The situation in Yemen is currently further complicated by ongoing civil conflict.
Conservation Efforts and Protection Status
Oman:
The hunting, capture and killing of leopards has been banned since 1976 and reinforced by law in 2003. The Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve and the Arabian Leopard Program (ALP) were established in 1997. Initially focused on research and camera trapping, the programme has grown to include local ranger force, public awareness campaigns, and compensation schemes for livestock losses. These efforts have fostered a sense of pride among locals in the continued presence of the leopard. Main conservation needs to address habitat loss include reducing livestock numbers and improving the management of rangelands and forests.
Saudi Arabia:
Saudi Arabia has a National Action Plan for Arabian Leopard conservation and a protected area network. It employs a multi-faceted approach, combining captive breeding, research, surveys, and public awareness programmes. In 2017, the Royal Commission for AlUla was established to safeguard the cultural and natural heritage of the AlUla region, including areas historically inhabited by leopards. In 2019, it launched the Global Fund for the Arabian Leopard to support conservation efforts across the region. Furthermore, it is working on a captive breeding programme and has partnered with Panthera to conduct nationwide surveys and to plan Arabian Leopard reintroduction in AlUla and other parts of Saudi Arabia.
Yemen:
In 2008, the Government of Yemen made the Arabian Leopard its national animal. The following year, the Foundation for the Protection of the Arabian Leopard in Yemen was established (now Foundation for Endangered Wildlife). The Foundation assessed the status of the Arabian Leopard and carried out presence/absence and camera trapping surveys. It also initiated awareness programmes for local communities and worked with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to monitor captive leopards. The EPA also set up a committee to protect the Arabian Leopard, including the prevention of illegal hunting.
Arabian Leopard Captive Breeding Programme:
In addition to in situ conservation efforts, Arabian Leopard range countries have undertaken important ex situ conservation actions. By 2011, there were 82 Arabian Leopards held in nine breeding centres across the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Oman. Genetic studies indicate that these retain a moderate level of genetic diversity compared to the wild population in Oman. Considering the small number of wild Arabian Leopards, captive breeding and reintroduction will be vital to the subspecies’ long-term survival.
M. Pittet
