Persian Leopard
Panthera pardus tulliana
Team Bars Turkmenistan/MoEPT/CXL
Persian Leopard - Panthera pardus tulliana
The Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana) is a phylogenetically distinct subspecies found across Southwest Asia. The name P. p. tulliana was originally assigned to the Anatolian Leopard from present-day Türkiye. While leopards from other parts of Southwest Asia, (from Iran, Afghanistan, and the Caucasus) have been shown to be genetically and morphologically similar, further comparative studies are needed to determine whether the populations in Türkiye belong to the same subspecies. In addition, more genetic research is required to clarify the relationship between P. p. tulliana and the two geographically closest subspecies: P. p. nimr in the Arabian Peninsula, and P. p. fusca in eastern Pakistan and the Indian subcontinent. The earlier hypothesis that the Indus River separates P. p. tulliana and P. p. fusca has been challenged by evidence of both subspecies occurring east of the river. Recent genetic studies also indicate introgression of Arabian with Persian Leopards.
Status and Distribution
The wild Persian Leopard population size is estimated at 750–1,044 individuals, with 450–626 mature ones. Each of the four main subpopulations contains fewer than 250 mature individuals. While some local populations show signs of stability or growth, particularly in the Caucasus and certain protected areas in Iran, the general trend across the range is declining. Therefore, the Persian Leopard is classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
The Persian Leopard occupies only about 16–28% of its historical range from around 1750. It is currently present in countries across Southwest and Central Asia, including Iran, Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iraq (Kurdistan), Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Russia (North Caucasus), Türkiye, and Turkmenistan. It may also persist in Uzbekistan, while likely being extinct in Tajikistan. Its range is divided into four subpopulations tied to major mountain systems: (1) the Caucasus Ecoregion (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, eastern Türkiye, northwestern Iran, the Russian North Caucasus); (2) Northern Iran and Central Asia (Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan); (3) Western range (southern and western Iran, Iraqi Kurdistan, southeastern Türkiye); and (4) Eastern range (Afghanistan, western and northern Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan).
The largest population exists in Iran (hosting up to 83% of the global population), which also holds the largest continuous tracts of suitable habitat. Most records come from the Alborz Mountains and some protected areas in north-eastern Iran. Leopard occurrence and density estimates are low throughout the Zagros Mountains and especially in the western, central and eastern parts of the country. Although the Iranian population is connected to those in neighbouring countries, transboundary dispersal is unlikely mainly due to border fencing. Turkmenistan holds the second-largest population, particularly along the border with Iran in the Kopetdag and Sunt Hasardag Ridges and the Badhyz Nature Reserve. Smaller populations also exist further north and may occasionally disperse into southern Kazakhstan and western Uzbekistan, though records there are scarce and uncertain. In the South Caucasus, the Persian Leopard's core area is in the southern section of the Lesser Caucasus Ridge, including the Zangezur Ridge, shared by Armenia and Azerbaijan’s Nakhchyvan Republic, as well as the Meghri, Bargushat, Vayk, and Geghama ridges in southern Armenia. In Iraq, leopards are mainly found in the Kurdistan Region, specifically in the Bamo, Qara Dagh, and Khoshk Mountains, representing the western extension of the Zagros Mountains. In Türkiye, recent records were reported in Lake Van in the southeast, from the western Taurus Mountains in the southwest as well as some eastern Provinces. In Pakistan, Persian Leopards are mainly recorded in the northern mountainous regions, with sparse data from the rest of the country. Some signs suggest possible range expansion into high-altitude areas. In Afghanistan, presence is mainly indicated in the central Hindu Kush and adjacent provinces.
Habitat
The Persian Leopard occupies diverse habitats but is most commonly found in mountainous regions covered with forests, woodlands, and scrublands, with rocky outcrops and precipitous slopes being essential components. It is known to favour southern slopes at low to mid-elevations, using northern slopes primarily during snow-free periods. Although it generally avoids deserts and open plains, the species can survive in lowland areas and cold desert regions.
Team Bars Turkmenistan/MoEPT/CXL
Ecology and Behaviour
The Persian Leopard is a wide-ranging predator, with male individuals typically occupying large territories, averaging around 100 km² in Tandoureh NP, Iran. Dispersal distances can be significant, with recorded movements including a 82 km journey from Iran to Turkmenistan, a 170 km straight-line movement between Azerbaijan and Armenia, and a 112 km dispersal between two national parks in Iran. Persian Leopards are solitary and mostly active at night and in crepuscular time though they may be active during the day in colder months. Both sexes mark their territories with scrapes on ridgetop trails and trees, scent markings, and droppings. They breed seasonally, typically between January and March, but births outside this period have been observed. Gestation lasts 90–106 days, resulting in 1–4 cubs that are weaned after about three months. Leopards reach sexual maturity at two to two-and-a-half years but often begin breeding later due to intraspecific competition and territory establishment. With low anthropogenic mortality and sufficient prey individuals can live up to 15 years.
M. Pittet
Prey
Their diet consists mainly of wild ungulates, which account for 80-95% of consumed biomass. They prey on species, such as the Bezoar Goat, Chamois, Eastern and Western Tur, Goitered Gazelle, Himalayan Goral, Himalayan Ibex, Kashmir Musk Deer, Markhor, Mouflon, Northern Red Muntjac, Red Deer, Roe Deer, Urial, and Wild Boar. When wild ungulates are scarce, leopards also consume smaller animals such as porcupines. In regions where natural prey is limited, domestic livestock—including cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs—become an important food source, sometimes making up more than half of their diet.
Main Threats
The Persian Leopard faces numerous threats across its range, most notably from human activities. One of the most significant threats is retaliatory killing in response to livestock predation. Local communities often resort to shooting, poisoning, or trapping leopards after actual or perceived attacks on their animals. In many areas, this type of conflict accounts for more than half of all recorded leopard deaths. Additional incentives for poaching include fear, pride, self-defence, or the trade of skins and body parts.
Another major issue is the widespread depletion of prey. As natural wild ungulates become increasingly scarce due to illegal hunting and poaching, leopards are forced to turn to domestic livestock for food, further fuelling human-wildlife conflict.
Habitat loss and fragmentation also pose a severe and growing threat. Socio-economic development (e.g. expanding human settlements, land-use changes, road construction) and overexploitation (e.g. forest degradation and loss) are reducing the amount and connectivity of suitable leopard habitat. Border fences further limit the movement of leopards and their prey. Habitat fragmentation due to roads also causes accidents that are a significant source of leopard mortality. Finally, climate change and ongoing desertification are emerging threats that could further reduce the availability and quality of leopard habitat.
There is little available information about the use and trade of live Persian Leopards or their body parts. In Iran, cases of confiscation of cubs or body parts from poachers and illegal markets have been occasionally reported, but the extent and patterns of such trade remain unclear. There is some evidence that leopards from Iran have been traded internationally to neighbouring countries. In the past, during the Soviet era, state-supported hunting of leopards took place in countries like Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Russia, with incentives such as bounties offered to reduce livestock losses and supply the fur trade. In Afghanistan, the sale of leopard fur was relatively common around a decade ago. However, the enforcement of trade controls and the gradual withdrawal of foreign troops since 2012 led to a noticeable decline in the availability of leopard skins.
Conservation efforts and Protection Status
The Persian Leopard is legally protected across its vast range, but practical conservation measures have been implemented very inconsistently. Currently, only 11 % of its core habitat is formally protected, with only 3% being under strict protection. Therefore, much of the Persian Leopard’s suitable habitat would benefit from enhanced protection through expanded area-based conservation efforts and stronger law enforcement. Existing protected areas often lack the necessary political support, funding, personnel, and training to effectively implement conservation and monitoring activities. Because much of the Persian Leopard's habitat spans over international borders, transboundary cooperation is essential. Establishing wildlife corridors to connect core habitat patches is a key priority, and coordinated efforts have been undertaken in the Caucasus Ecoregion. However, ongoing regional conflicts and security challenges often hinder progress, limiting access for national conservationists and making international cooperation even more difficult
A major conservation programme specifically targeting the Persian Leopard recovery was launched by WWF in the Caucasus Ecoregion in 2002. It includes long-term monitoring of leopards and their wild prey, along with a range of conservation activities in key leopard habitats with the involvement of a wide range of stakeholders and international organisations. These efforts have contributed to the recovery of important prey species and have established a strong foundation for scientific research on the abundance, distribution, and status of both the leopard and its prey. In Russia, a reintroduction programme has released captive-bred leopards into the wild, to re-establish populations in the western and central Caucasus. In Turkey, camera trapping and other monitoring efforts in the Taurus Mountains and the Turkish Caucasus help to better understand leopard and prey populations.
Human-leopard conflict, especially in response to livestock depredation, remains one of the most serious threats. Effective mitigation measures, such as predator-proof enclosures, compensation schemes, livestock insurance, use of deterrents, and improved herding practices are urgently needed. Several of these methods have already yielded promising results in Iran. Raising awareness in local communities about the ecological role of leopards and how to prevent conflicts has also proven to reduce retaliatory killings. Addressing the threat of road mortality requires infrastructure solutions such as wildlife crossings and speed control measures in known hotspots. Lastly, to support effective conservation, a coordinated, range-wide monitoring programme is urgently needed to track changes in leopard and prey populations and assess threats over time.
