Lions (Panthera leo) are in decline throughout most of their range due to human persecution, largely provoked by depredation on livestock, and there is debate as to the usefulness of financial instruments to mitigate this conflict. Intending to reduce local lion-killing, the Mbirikani Predator Compensation Fund compensates members of Mbirikani Group Ranch for livestock depredation at a flat rate (close to average market value), after the kill has been verified and with penalties imposed for poor husbandry. Despite  penalizing claimants, 55% of claims arose because livestock were lost in the bush. Between 1st April 2003 and 31st December 2006, 754 cattle, 80 donkeys and 1844 sheep/goats were killed (2.31% of the total livestock herd each year). Forty-three percent of kills were ascribed to spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta); leopards (Panthera pardus) and cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) were blamed for 37% of cases, lions 7%, jackals (Canis mesomelas) 7% and buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and elephants (Loxodonta africana) together 6%. Significantly more attacks took place during months of lower rainfall but the rate of attacks was not related to the density of livestock on the ranch, or the ratio of wild herbivores to domestic stock. There was no correlation between local market prices and the number of claims per month. Despite compensation, at least one lion per year was killed in 2004, 2005 and 2006. We describe some features of large carnivore depredation in the study area and suggest that regional recovery of the lion population may require compensation on a wider scale.

Maclennan_et_al_2009_Compensation_scheme_for_lion_damage.pdf

Macleod F. 1999 Dec 10. Cheetahs exported to Chinese horror park. Mail & Guardian.

Six cheetahs from the De Wildt Cheetah Research and Breeding Centre, one of South Africa's most reputable breeding centres of endangered species, were exported this week to a safari park in China that has been universally condemned by animal welfare organizations.

Macleod_1999_Cheetahs_exported_to_Chinese_horror_park.pdf

MacPherson N, Fernando BK. 1991. Opportunities for improved environmental management in Afganistan - DRAFT! 14 p.

The large herds of wild asses (Equus hemionus) and gazelles (Gazella spp) which until recent times populated the steppes, have been almost exterminated by hunting. Similarly their predators, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), have declined. It is impossible to obtain an accurate estimate of current wildlife populations due to the restricted access to important wildlife areas, however from all descriptive accounts of field workers and village project workers, there are few local sightings of wildlife species. Hunting pressure has been an increasing problem for the past several decades as indicated in FAO reports of 1973, 1977 and 1981. Of the six major protected area candidate sites identified in this report, it is feared that many of the original values of the areas may have been lost.

MacPherson_&_Fernando_1991_Environmental_management_in_Afganistan.pdf

Maddox TM. 2003. The ecology of cheetahs and other large carnivores in a pastoralist-dominated buffer zone [dissertation]. Department of Anthropology, University College, London & Institute of Zoology, London. 373 p.

Due to the various limitations of core-protected areas, interest in semi-protected landscapes and the human-wildlife interactions that occur within them is rapidly gaining credence. One of the most important issue in this field is the human-carnivore relationship, with many large carnivores globally threatened on one hand and the capability of potentially devastating impacts on humans on the other. In this thesis, the success of cheetahs, their competitors and their predators in two buffer zones (Loliondo and Ngorongoro) of the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania was examined in comparison with populations living inside the park. The potential role played in carnivore ecology by the Maasai pastoralists inhabiting the buffer zones was then examined to assess the extent to which their presence determines any of the differences.

Maddox_2003_Ecology_of_cheetahs_in_a_buffer_zone.pdf

Malbrant R. 1936. Le Guépard: Faune du Centre Africain Français (Mammifères et Oiseaux). In:Malbrant R, editor. Faune du Centre Africain Français (Mammifères et Oiseaux). Paris: Paul Lechevalier.

The book's subject is the Central French African wildlife (roughly corresponding to Chad). Cheetah occurred in Sahelian area and slightly wooded savanna. The southern limit of their range was at around 10° North.

Le sujet de ce livre est la faune sauvage de l'Afrique française centrale (qui correspond grossièrement au Tchad). Le guépard est présent dans la région sahélienne et un peu en savane boisée. La limite sud de leur répartition était à peu près le 10^e de latitude nord.

Malbrant_1936_Fauna_of_Central_Africa_-_The_Cheetah.pdf

A Regional Red List Workshop for the carnivores of the Arabian Peninsula took place 8-10 February 2011. The workshop was organised and funded by the Environment and Protected Areas Authority, Government of Sharjah and hosted by the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife. More than 30 experts from within and outside the region participated. The workshop was facilitated by Caroline Pollock from the IUCN Red List Unit in Cambridge, UK. Thirty species of terrestrial carnivores have been reported to occur within the Arabian region and 20 of these have been recorded within the Arabian Peninsula. The regional Red List status of 16 species was assessed in two working groups. Out of the 20 species, one was assessed as Regionally Extinct, one as Critically Endangered, two as Endangered, one Vulnerable, four Near Threatened, five Least Concern and two Data Deficient. The four remaining species were deemed Not Applicable for regional assessment, according to the IUCN guidelines. Eight (50%) species are more threatened at a regional level than they are globally, the three largest species (wolf, leopard, cheetah) by 2-3 categories of threat. Populations of 12 species are considered to be declining, two are increasing and trends in two are unknown. The main threat to all carnivores is indiscriminate and sustained persecution through hunting, trapping and poisoning. Other threats include habitat destruction and degradation through overgrazing, expansion of roads and settlements and commercial and industrial development. Several Protected Areas have been established, some of which cover a substantial area, and carnivores occur in many of these. However, very few have been designed in order to protect carnivores and protection within them may not be effective when high priority potential prey species are present. A sustained public awareness campaign is needed across the region to highlight the ecological importance of carnivores and to counter the prevailing negative attitude towards them.

Mallon_&_Budd_2011_Red_List_Status_of_Carnivores_in_the_Arabian_Peninsula.pdf

Mallon DP. 2007. Cheetahs in Central Asia: A historical summary. Cat News 46:4-7.

The historical distribution of the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus extended from Africa through the Arabian Peninsula into Iran and Afghanistan. From there, the range continued eastwards to Pakistan and India, and northeast through Central Asia: Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan andTurkmenistan (Nowell & Jackson 1996). During the Middle Ages, cheetahs also occurred to the west of the Caspian Sea, in Transcaucasia, and according to Vereshchagin (1959) they may have survived in the Kura-Araks lowlands of Azerbaijan until the 18th century.

Mallon_2007_History_of_cheetahs_in_Central_Asia.pdf

Manton VJA. 1970. Breeding cheetahs at Whipsnade Park. Int Zoo Yb 10:85-6.

1967 the hand-reared male Jack was introduced to the female Juanita. They had two litters. The first litter showed osteodystrophic lesions and one of them died. It was not possible to observe if the cubs actually ate calcium additive.
It is interesting to note that on each occasion after the introduction of the male to the female the initial sparring period has been followed by a period when both animals remained closely associated with one another. After mating had taken place the relationship could only be described as indifferent.

Manton_1970_Breeding_Cheetahs_at_Whipsnade_Park.pdf

Manton VJA. 1971. A further report on breeding cheetahs at Whipsnade Park. Int Zoo Yb 11:125-6.

In a previous article Manton (1970) reported on the birth of two litters of cubs to Juanita. On 1 February 1970 Juanita again did not leave her house all day and two cubs were recorded. Weights of all three litters born from the same female in Whipsnade Park are given in a table. The cheetah population of Whipsnade now includes a male from the first litter, two cubs from the third litter. The male from the second litter has been sent to Jersey Zoo.

Manton_1971_A_further_report_on_beeding_cheetahs_at_Whipsnade_Park.pdf

Manton VJA. 1974. Birth of a cheetah to a captive-bred mother. Int Zoo Yb 14:126-9.

Breeding with the cheetah Juanita was very successful. The reasons behind these successes was the use of a separation technique. So further breeding should go on like this with a cheetah named Janica. She gave birth to a male cub. Process of mating, behaviour during pregnancy and dimensions of the straw-lines maternity pens are described.

Manton_1974_Birth_of_a_cheetah_to_a_captive-bred_mother.pdf

Manton VJA. 1975. Captive breeding of cheetahs. In:Martin RD, editor. Breeding of Endangered Species as a an aid to their survival. New York and London: Academic Press; p 337-344.

The British orientalist and jurist W. Jones (1746-94) says that the use of the cheetah for hunting originated with Hushing, King of Persia in 856 B.C. Despite this long association with man and his success with other animals, it is surprising to read in a report by the English naturalist W.I. Blandford, in 1888, that the cheetah had not been known to breed in captivity. It is only from 1956 that cheetahs are registered to be born in captivity. To answer the question of how and why it is so difficult to breed cheetahs in zoos, the author uses a 15 years period, during which 43 young were born, to search the common factors. Between several factors, he brought out the three probably most relevant ones like the improvement in standard diets, the separation of breeding pairs and the bringing together of only mature animals.

Manton_1975_Captive_Breeding_of_cheetahs.pdf

Manton VJA. 1975. Breeding at Whipsnade Park: a report on the first 17 births. Int Zoo Yb 15:125-6.

Previous reports emphasized individual breeding successes at Whipsnade Park. Now that two captive-bred animals have given birth to a litter and breeding involves three females and two males. A summary of the position may be useful to many collections seeking to breed these animals. Table with weights of cheetahs born at Whipsnade Park.

Manton_1975_Cheetah_breeding_at_Whipsnade_Park_A_report_on_the_first_17_births.pdf

Marker-Kraus L.  Focus on the Cheetah: Technical innovations in species conservation Washington D.C.: NOAHS; 19 pp.

A recently drafted Master Plan developed by the cheetah propagation group of the Species Survival Plan of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquarium has listed basic research in reproduction as a primary end of the SSP. This research is to be conducted by NOAHS Center scientists and will include: (1) fundamental studies of the reproductive physiology, and endocrinology of the species; (2) assessing, understanding and combating infertility; (3) germ plasm storage of sperm, and embryos for conservation and biodiversity; and (4) artificial breeding strategies including in vitro fertilization and artificial insemination. Considering the combined results of the genetics, physiology, structure and natural history of the captive population of the cheetah there are several recommendations that are important to improve the demographic pattern: First, the outbreeding of individuals within the captive population, second, the increasing of the breeding population's size and finally, the continually increasing of the research on captive and free-ranging cheetahs.

Marker-Kraus_-_Focus_on_cheetah_-_Technical_innovations.pdf

Marker-Kraus L.  Notes on Amanda Lee's draft of cheetah management guidlines 7 p.

Notes on Amanda Lee's draft of cheetah management guidelines for species kept in captivity. Corrections, comments and adds from Laurie Marker-Kraus.

Marker-Kraus_-_Notes_on_Amanda_Lees_draft_of_cheetah_management_guidelines.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Wittman BK.  Bibliography 38 p.

Bibliography of the cheetah -  part of the studbook.

Marker-Kraus_&_Whitman_-_Cheetah_bibliography.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Kraus D.  How long will the cheetah run 9 pp.

The cheetah is suffering declining numbers throughout Africa, where suitable habitat is disappearing and prey is becoming scarce due to the consequences of human encroachment, as land is developed and converted to farmland for livestock production. Wildlife reserves and conservation areas in reality have had the opposite effect for the cheetah, due to forced competition with other large predators. The Namibian cheetah has adapted to the farmlands mainly because of its diminishing natural habitat and the elimination of other large predators. Today, the cheetah's survival is in humans hands.

Marker-Kraus_&_Kraus_-_How_Long_Will_The_Cheetah_Run.pdf

Marker-Kraus L. 1988. Status of the cheetah in the wild. In International Studbook Kpt. for Cheetah. pp. A2-A5.

History suggests that although cheetah inhabited a wide range of areas, they never have been abundant. Today their numbers are declining with even greater rapidity owing in part to the disappearance of suitable habitat and as a consequence of a lack of genetic diversity. In Asia, the wild cheetah is nearly extinct. A small number of Asian cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus), maybe 200, still survive in Iran, and perhaps Turkmenistan and north-west Afghanistan. There has not been a comprehensive survey of African cheetah since the early 1970s when Norman  Myers calculated the African population of cheetah to be 14000 animals in 22 countries. On the basis of his research, he estimated that there would be fewer than 10000 cheetah by 1980. Few regional studies of the 1980s are briefly presented.

Marker-Kraus_1988_Status_of_the_cheetah_in_the_wild.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Whitman B.  Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) bibliography 1st edition.  1989.

Reference list of cheetah relevant papers.

Marker-Kraus_&_Whitman_1989_Cheetah_bibliography_1st_edition.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Kraus D. 1990. Status of Cheetah in Zimbabwe and Namibia. Cat News 12, 15-16.

Namibia, the cheetah's main problem is in direct conflict with man and his livestock. The species generally does not do well in protected areas where there is strong competition with other large predators, such as lions and hyenas. Because of predation pressure in reserves, many cheetahs live in unprotected areas.

Marker-Kraus_&_Kraus_1990_Status_of_Cheetah_in_Zimbabwe_and_Namibia_CatNews_12.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Wittman BK. 1990. Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) bibliography 2nd edition. Report.

Biblography of the AAZPA of the cheetah with categories for classification.

Marker-Kraus_&_Wittman_1990_Cheetah bibliography_2nd_edition.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Grisham J. 1993. Captive breeding of cheetahs in North American zoos: 1987-1991. Zoo Biology 12(1):5-18.

From 1987 to 1991, the North American captive cheetah population increased by 38% (to 266 animals), due to importation and captive breeding. This population constitutes 26% of the world's captive cheetahs and 36% of all reproductively successful animals. Since 1956, 33% of all cubs born in North America occurred during this 5-year period. Because of importation of animals from breeding programs abroad, East African (A. jubatus raineyi) genes have been introduced into the North American cheetah population, and 39% of all cubs born during 1987- 1991 were South African/East African hybrids. Also during this time, the breeding population and effective breeding population increased by 86% and 72.6%, respectively. The incidence of infant mortality decreased from 37% (last recorded for the years 1956 to 1986) to 28% (averaged over 5 years), although infant mortality during the latter period ranged from 15% (for unrelated parents) to 41 % (for related parents). Management recommendations implemented to increase fecundity and population size appear to be successful, although the founder base of the population still has only been increased from 52 cheetahs in 1986 to 72 animals in 1991.

Marker-Kraus_&_Grisham_1993_Captive_breeding_of_cheetahs_in_North_American_zoos.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Kraus D. 1993. The history of cheetahs in Namibia. Swara 16, 8-12.

It was estimated by Norman Myers that in 1900 there were more than 100'000 cheetahs throughout Africa and Asia, found in at least 44 countries. Today the species is extirpated from about 20 countries, and the authors estimate that perhaps less than 12'000 animals remain, found mostly in small pocketed populations in 24 to 26 countries in Africa and 200 animals in Iran (resumed in a map). Namibia has the largest remaining population of free-ranging cheetah in the world (25'000 animals), and 95 percent of the population lives outside of protected game reserves. From 1980 to 1991, CITES reports 6782 free-ranging cheetahs have been removed from the Namibian cheetah population. In order to assess the cheetah's situation today, the authors looked back into the recent history to understand the ecological changes that have occurred in Namibia.

Marker-Kraus_&_Kraus_1993_History_of_cheetahs_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker-Kraus,L.; Kraus,D.; Barnett,D.; Hurlbut,S. 1993. Summary sheets on data presented in the "Survey of livestock and predator issues on the Namibian farmlands to assess problems and strategies for cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) survival". Cheetah Conservation Fund; 9 p.

From June 1991 through August 1993, the Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF) conducted a survey of the Namibian commercial farmlands. The results, including historical information and details about methods used and interpretation of data, are provided in the full document entitled "Survey of Livestock and Predator Issues on the Namibian Farmlands to Assess Problems and Strategies for Cheetah Survival". The objectives of the document are: (1) to identify the important components of farmland ecosystems necessary to sustain a healthy cheetah population; (2) to identify farm management practices that reduce livestock losses from predators; (3) to suggest conservation management plans which are beneficial to both the cheetah and farmers.

Marker-Kraus_et_al_1993_Livestock_and_cheetah_on_Namibian_farmlands.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Kraus D. 1993. The history of cheeths in Namibia. Swara East African Wildlife Society:8-12.

In 1990 CCF was founded. Very little work has been done on free-ranging cheetahs outside of reserves where they are in direct conflict with nomadic herders and commercial livestock farmers and are killed in high numbers. CCF is working with those people who have problem with this predator. CCF's major objective is to secure habitats for free-ranging cheetahs throughout their range. The extensive farming had drastically changes on the farmland. There has been an over utilization of land for food and profit without understanding the limitation of the ecosystem. There was a premeditated elimination of species that were deemed competitors to the livestock industry because of the competition for grazing and the predators because they killed livestock. Cheetahs pass through farms and move on their way from one playtree to the other where they are live-caught. Some are exported to zoos, but the majority are killed. With more knowledge of the movements and dispersal of cheetahs, farmers will be able to utilize or develop livestock management and protection practices.

Marker-Kraus_&_Kraus_1993_History_of_cheetahs_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker-Kraus L. 1994. Conservation strategy for the long-term survival of cheetah in Namibia Windhoek: CCF; 6 p.

The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus is declining through its range because of loss of habitat, a declining prey base and competition with livestock interests. Throughout Africa there are less than 15000 animals remaining. The largest wild population of cheetahs is Namibia, although in the last 12 years numbers have been reduced by half to about 2500 animals. Significant declines have continued as farmers captured and removed cheetahs as "pests". Established in 1990, the Cheetah Conservation Fund aims to secure habitats for the long-term survival of the species and its ecosystems. The primary focus of the Fund is working outside of the protected reserves with the local livestock farming communities to develop ways to reduce conflict between humans and collaborative research, to disseminate information and to recommend management techniques to farmers.

Marker-Kraus_1994_Conservation_strategy_for_cheetah_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Kraus D. 1994 Annual Report - Conservation Strategy for the long-term survival of cheetah in Namibia Windhoek: Cheetah Conservation Fund; 13 p.

In 1994, CCF dealt with 72 cheetahs of which 29 (21.8) were tagged and 4 (3.1) were radio-collared and relocated to Zambia for reintroduction, 28 (19.9) animals were dealt with in captivity. CCF's radio-tracking program continues with four males and one female. In October, a farm was purchased for CCF. This will help to establish an international cheetah research center. CCF's involvement in education has considerably grown over the past year.

Marker-Kraus_&_Kraus_1994_Conservation_strategy_for_cheetah_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Kraus D. 1994. The sustainable use of the cheetah for the enhancement of the species. Annual General Meeting of the Namibian Professional Hunters Association. Annual General Meeting of the Namibian Professional Hunters Assosciation; 6 pp.

The purpose of the Cheetah Conservation Fund is to secure habitats for the long-term survival of the cheetah and their ecosystems through multi-discipline and integrated programs in research, conservation, and education. The point of the survey has been to learn about livestock and wildlife management practices of the farmers, livestock and wildlife numbers, wildlife distribution, farmers attitudes towards wildlife conservation and the environment, and last but not least the farmers' problems with cheetahs and other predators. Of the farmers interviewed, over 70% said that the main solutions to the long-term survival of the cheetah on their farmlands included conservation, education, and awareness; maintaining large enough populations of wildlife for the cheetahs to prey upon thus reducing conflict with livestock; and to improve livestock management practices. One comment that was repeated by over 95% of the farmers was that no one had ever told them of the world picture of the cheetah and that they played such an important role in this species long-term survival.

Marker-Kraus_&_Kraus_1994_Sustainable_use_of_the_cheetah.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Kraus D. 1994. The Namibian free-ranging cheetah. Environmental Conservation:369-370.

To assess the cheetah's situation today, we looked back into recent history to understand the circumstances which have led to its success as indicated by numbers on Namibian farmlands, and its subsequent rapid decline. In the 1960s  the vegetation of the land began to change, due to severe drought, overgrazing, and previous reduction of large herds of migratory games. Along with the farmland development came also the conflict with large and dangerous predators. After the 1960s the cheetah population began to increase, probably due to the reduction in the numbers of large predators, the 'development' of water, and the resident animal wildlife populations. During the wet years of the 1970s, when prey was abundant, the cheetah population had also increased. But, in the 1980s, with grass cover low from the drought and wildlife numbers drastically reduced, the farmers began a war on the cheetahs. Thus, over a 10-years' period their number declined to half. The long-term goal of the Cheetah Conservation Fund is to develop a conservancy for cheetahs on Namibian's commercial farmlands in cooperation with the farmers and the local human communities.

Marker-Kraus_&_Kraus_1994_Namibian_free-ranging_cheetah.pdf

Marker-Kraus L. 1994. Letter to Prof. Nicholas Plunin - Cheetah play tree species. Personal communication.

Laurie Marker is answering Polunin's questions what kind of playtrees cheetahs use primarily. These are: Camel-thorn tree, Shepherd's tree, bastard umbrella-thorn tree and weeping wattle tree.

Marker-Kraus_1994_Letter_to_Prof_Nicholas_Polunin_-_Playtrees.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Kraus D. 1997. Conservation strategies for the long-time survival of the Cheetah by the Cheetah Conservation Fund. Int Zoo Yb 35:59-66.

The cheetah's attraction to livestock farmland poses a direct threat to the species' survival. The Cheetah Conservation Fund's primary focus is in areas outside of the protected reserves, working with the local livestock farming communities to develop ways to reduce conflict between humans and cheetahs and devise a cheetah conservation management plan which secures habitat for the species and considers land use needs. This document reports over a survey's period going from 16 November 1993 to 31 May 1994, during that the CCF made progress in many different areas. Particularly, it noticed improvements in the media attention from newspapers, radio and television, in its biological data-base on wild-caught cheetahs, in the much interest from the farming community in continuing the Livestock Guardian Dog Program, and in educational involvement.

Marker-Kraus _&_Kraus_1997_Conservation_strategies_for_the_survival_of_cheetah.pdf

Marker-Kraus L. 1997. History of the Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus in zoos 1829-1994. Int Zoo Yb 35:27-43.

Since 1829 the African Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus has been exhibited in over 373 zoological facilities. As at 31 December 1994 the international captive population was 1218 animals of which 880 (72%) were captive-bred and 318 (28%) were wild-caught. The steady increase in the captive population is a result of captive breeding, co-operative captive-management programmes and importation from the wild. Of facilities holding Cheetah 26% (96) have bred the species, 15% of which have bred continuously producing 63% (n = 1580) of all cubs born in captivity. Although the number of facilities breeding Cheetah has increased, in 1994 only 10% of them reported successful reproduction. The Ne has increased gradually and in 1994 was equivalent to 17% of the captive population. Of 1564 animals that have been imported, c. 20% (n = 308) have reproduced and in 1994 155 have living descendants in the captive population. Except for a few East African Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus raineyi all of the imported animals are the southern African subspecies Acinonyx jubatus jubatus. There has been an increase in the number of subspecific hybrids in the captive population and between 1990 and 1994 28 hybrids produced 24% (190) of cubs. The captive population is not yet self- sustaining and is maintained by the importation of wild-caught animals. Continued progress can be achieved by implication of a co-ordinated global management programme.

Marker-Kraus_1997_History_of_cheeahs_in_zoos.pdf

Marker-Kraus L, Kraus D. 1997. Conservation strategies for the long-term survival of the Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus by the Cheetah Conservation Fund, Windhoek. Int Zoo Yb 35:59-66.

The Cheetah Acinonyx juhatus is declining throughout its range because of loss of habitat, a declining prey base and competition with livestock interests. Throughout Africa there are less than 15 000 animals remaining. The largest wild population of Cheetahs is in Namibia, although in the last 12 years numbers have been reduced by half to c. 2500 animals. Significant declines have continued as farmers capture and remove Cheetahs as 'pests'. Established in 1990, the Cheetah Conservation Fund aims to secure habitats for the long-term survival of the species and its ecosystems. The primary focus of the Fund is working outside of the protected reserves with the local livestock farming communities to develop ways to reduce conflict between humans and Cheetahs. The Fund also conducts independent and collaborative research, disseminates information and recommends management techniques to farmers.

Marker-Kraus_&_Kraus_1997_Conservation_strategy_for_long-term_survival_of_cheetahs_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker-Kraus,L.1997. Morphological abnormalities reported in Namibian cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). 50th Anniversary congress of VAN & 2nd Africa Congress of the WVA - Cheetah symposium; 18 p.

Extensive genetic studies have shown that cheetahs are genetically homozygous, a condition that makes their survival more vulnerable to environmental and ecological changes. Three distinct morphological abnormalities have been observed in the free-ranging Namibian cheetah population. Two dental anomalies, focal palatine erosion (FPE) and crowded incisors, as well as a distinct kink in cheetahs tails. Cheetah Conservation Fund has developed an extensive data base on over 250 free-ranging Namibia cheetah. Morphological abnormalities have been included in this data base. Opportunistically, captured cheetahs are anesthetized, during which time physical exams and biological samples are collected for over-all health, disease and genetic analysis. A high incidence of cheetahs have been recorded with deep impressions in the upper palate, possibly a predisposition to FPE, a condition where the lower molars break through the upper palate. FPE is a serious problem that can lead to fatal disease. Previously, FPE has only been reported in captive cheetah and was thought to be a result of lack of bones in captive diets. This is the first reporting of FPE in free-ranging cheetahs. Behavioural signs accompanying FPE and treatment are presented. Another anomaly includes a high incidence of cheetahs with crowded lower incisors. The crowding varies from slight to severe where incisors are arranged in two parallel rows. This anomaly has not yet been reported in literature, which makes it difficult for those who work with these animals to recognize the defect and study it further. This defect is significant due to the challenges the species face in the wild. Incisor teeth are used by cheetah to skin their prey, so a malocclusion may theoretically make skinning more difficult thus allowing more time for other predators to steal their food. Being able to quantify abnormalities is important for the conservation of species, as defects may have long-reaching affects on the survival of endangered species. If morphological abnormalities, such as those discussed in this paper, are a localized problem and continue to be passed on, they could rapidly become widespread throughout the population.

Marker-Kraus_1997_Morphological_abnormalities_in_Namibian_cheetahs.pdf

Marker L. 1994. Letter to Johann Vaatz - Trophy Hunting. Personal communication.

Laurie Marker is answering Johann Vaatz questions about cheetahs trophy hunting. Which kinds of animals could be taken for trophy hunting? There are still to many informations missing about cheetahs to answer this question. But a proven livestock killing animal should be removed from the free-range, and therefore, these animals could be trophy hunted. What conditions must the farmer fulfill, which would satisfy our scientific needs, to stop unnecessary killing and trapping? The CCF would welcome the more active involvement of hunters and farmers in all aspects of cheetah research. Another way is to practice preventative farm management.What is an ethical way of hunting the cheetah? The ethical way to shoot a cheetah is to track it and give the cheetahs as fair a chance as the hunter has. But often cheetahs are trapped and shot. This is not ethical.

Marker_1994_Letter_to_Johann_Vaatz_trophy_hunting.pdf

Marker L. 2003. Challenges in developing predator conservation education in Namibia. 10 p.

This paper draws on the lessons learned from CCF education program, and challenges facing predator conservation in Namibia. With the participation of people from various backgrounds, CCF wishes to identify steps, obstacles and challenges in developing and implementing predator education. Participants therefore could contribute towards identifying methods and processes for predator curricula development, and implementation. The participants could also adopt similar approaches elsewhere in their respective countries, and could facilitate access to resource materials, and networking.

Marker_2003_Challenges_in_Developing_Predator_Conservation_Education_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker L, Dickman A, Schumann M. 2005. Using Livestock guarding dogs as a conflict resolution strategy on namibian farms. Carnovore Damage Prevetion News:28-32.

Overall, our research has shown that the placement of livestock guarding dogs on Namibian farms can have a very positive effect for local farmers, in terms of reducing stock losses and having an economically beneficial impact. Although studies have indicated that cheetah removals have dropped in the study area over the time that guarding dogs were placed, it is hard to measure the extent to which these changes were due to conflict resolution measures such as dog placement, and how much was due to other factors, such as education, or changes in cheetah population size. Nevertheless, numerous other studies have demonstrated a link between levels of stock depredation and the removal of those predators blamed, so the placement of these dogs on Namibian farms may well have had a positive effect in terms of reducing cheetah removal rates. Despite the inevitable problems encountered with any conflict resolution measure, this study has shown that the use of livestock guarding dogs can be an effective tool for both communal and commercial farmers in Namibia and could have important implications in many similar situations elsewhere.

Marker_et_al_2005_Using_Livestock_Guarding_Dogs_to_reduce_conflicts_on_Namibian_Farms.pdf

Marker L.1985. Factors in cheetah conservation. AAZPA Regional Meeting; 144 p.

Successful cheetah conservation will be dependent upon a series of interrelated needs for survival. A concerted effort must be aimed at reducing the conflict with human population in Africa. Game ranchers and sheep farmers must be shown that the cheetah con become an economically acceptable component of its natural habitat. In Africa the differences between what is desirable for the cheetah and what is feasible is the key problem. Measures must be taken which can realistically be achieved under the given conditions of human needs, resources, motivation, and legislation.
In captivity, communication and cooperation in cheetah management must continue. While major successes in captive breeding have taken place over the past few years, we must leave no stone unturned in our effort to get more offspring from the reservoir of breeding age cheetah in the captive population. Techniques for artificial insemination and embryo transplants should be refined and acted upon. If successful, this will significantly broaden the base of founder representation. Captive cheetah management programs throughout the world must work together by periodically acquiring new animals. It seems that a world-wide legislative effort must be attempted to preserve the cheetah in the wild and in captivity in the most economically feasible way.

Marker_1985_Factors_in_Cheetah_Conservation.pdf

Marker L, O'Brien SJ. 1989. Captive breeding of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in North American zoos (1871-1986). Zoo Biology 8:3-16.

The African cheetah has been bred in North American zoological facilities since 1956. The captive population has since grown to around 200 animals because of a combined increase in importation plus captive births. From 1982 to 1986, the captive birth rate declined by 5O%, primarily because of a low frequency of breeding individuals in the population. The 1986 population had an effective breeding size of 28.1 in a total population of over 193 cheetahs. The incidence of infant mortality has been high (36.7%) relative to other zoo-bred species, perhaps as a consequence of the previously observed genetic impoverishment of the species. The combination of low fecundity, high infant mortality, and population dynamics indicates that the North American captive cheetah population is neither a self-sustaining nor a theoretically "viable population" as defined by Soule et al. [ZOO BIOLOGY 5:101-114, 19861. Possible recommendations for improving captive cheetah propagation are discussed.

Marker_&_OBrien_1989_North_American_cheetah_propagation.pdf

Marker L. 1997. 1997 Annual report - Conservation strategy for the long-term survival of cheetah in Namibia Windhoek: Cheetah Conservation Fund; 13 p.

Approximately 95% of the cheetah's population in Namibia lives on farmlands where they conflict with human and livestock interests. The Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF) is working to reduce these conflicts and devise a conservation plan that secures habitat for species while accommodating farmers' land use needs. Research activities encompass the development of a comprehensive database on the cheetah and its ecosystem, including habitats, home ranges, prey species, livestock predation, demographics and social attitudes. Conservation activities use the database to develop non-lethal predator control methods. The document report the results of the annual activity of 1997.

Marker_1997_Annual_report_-_Cheetah_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker,L. Schumann,B.D.Penzhorn BL, editor. 1998. Cheetahs as problem animals: management of cheetahs on private land in Namibia. Symposium on Cheetahs as Game Ranch Animals, Onderstepoort, 23 & 24 October 1998; Onderstepoort, South Africa: Wildlife Group South African Veterinary Association; 99 p.

The management of problem animals on private land is a complex, difficult issue. When an endangered species is involved, the necessity for crisis management can further complicate matters. Namibia is fortunate to be in a position where cheetah numbers are, at this stage, sufficient to sustain the population. However, with growing human population expansion and the demand for more land and increased pressure on resources, time is running out for the cheetah. The extensive nature of farming practices in Namibia has inadvertently maintained habitat favourable for cheetah. The primary problem is conflict with livestock farming, to which there are solutions other than traditional lethal predator control. In order for agriculture practices to be compatible with the survival of wildlife, new methods and policies of farm management, wildlife management and predator control urgently need to be incorporated into land management.

Marker_&_Schumann_1998_Management_of_cheetahs_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker,L.1998. Current status of the Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). Symposium on Cheetahs as Game Ranch Animals, Onderstepoort, 23&24 October 1998; 98 Oct; 17 p.

The status of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) varies widely in the 32 countries listed in the report. All populations are classified as vulnerable or endangered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and are regulated by the Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) as Appendix I. There are 13 countries listed in this report where the cheetah has become extinct during the past 40 years. The wild cheetah is nearly extinct in Asia, with approximately 100 cheetah surviving in small pocketed areas through Iran. Free-ranging cheetahs inhabit a broad section of Africa including areas of North Africa, Sahel, eastern, and southern Africa. The two strong-holds remain in Kenya and Tanzania in East Africa and Namibia and Botswana in southern Africa. Although there has not been a comprehensive survey of African cheetah since 1975, there is a consensus that the cheetah population is declining throughout Africa. Since 1991, and up-dated regularly, Cheetah Conservation Fund has made contact with researchers in cheetah range countries and has tried to keep communication open about cheetah populations in those countries. From the information gathered, it is approximated that less than 15000 cheetah are found throughout their range, with a low estimate of 9000 animals and an optimistic estimate of 12000 animals. Perhaps for the cheetah, though, individual numbers of animals may not be the important point, but the numbers of viable populations still existing. Viable populations may be found in only half or less of the countries where cheetahs still exist. The cheetah has suffered a devastating decline of available habitat and prey both necessary for its survival. In addition, the species does not do well in protected game reserves due to competition with other large predators, and the captive population is not self-sustaining but is maintained through imports of cheetahs from the wild population.

Le statut du guépard (Acinonyx jubatus) est très variable dans les 32 pays listés de ce rapport. Toutes les populations sont classées vulnérables ou menacées par l'Union Mondiale pour la Nature (IUCN) et sont régulés par la Convention sur le Commerce Internationale des Espèces de la Faune et de la Flore sauvages menacées d'extinction (CITES) en Appendice I. Le guépard a disparu de 13 pays de la liste au cours des 40 dernières années. Le guépard est proche de l'extinction en Asie avec approximativement 100 guépards survivant dans de petites zones à travers l'Iran. Le guépard vit sur une large partie de l'Afrique incluant des zones de l'Afrique du Nord, du Sahel et de l'Afrique de l'Est et du Sud. Les deux bastions restent le Kenya et la Tanzanie en Afrique de l'Est et le Botswana en Afrique du Sud. Bien qu'il n'y ait pas eu de vaste enquête du guépard d'Afrique depuis 1975, il fait l'unanimité que la population de guépard est en déclin sur toute l'Afrique. Depuis 1991 et mis à jour régulièrement, le Cheetah Conservation Fund a mis en contact les chercheurs dans les pays abritant du guépard et essaie de rester en contact sur les populations de guépard dans ces pays. D'après les informations récoltées, il reste approximativement moins de 15000 guépards sur toute son aire de répartition avec une estimation minimale de 9000 animaux et une estimation maximale de 12000 animaux. Pour le guépard le nombre d'individus pris isolément n'est pas le plus important, il s'agit plutôt du nombre de populations viables encore existantes. Les populations viables peuvent être trouvées dans la moitié ou moins des pays où le guépard existe encore. Le guépard a souffert d'un déclin dévastateur de l'habitat disponible et des proies, tous deux nécessaire à sa survie. De plus, l'espèce ne se porte pas bien dans les réserves de gibier à cause de la compétition avec d'autres grands prédateurs, et la population captive n'est pas autosuffisante mais elle est maintenue par l'import de guépard des populations sauvages.

Marker_1998_Current_status_of_the_cheetah.pdf

Marker L. 1999. Reducing conflicts between Namibian farmers and cheetahs. International Wildlife Management Congress, Hungary; pp.184-187.

Namibia has the world's largest remaining population of free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) of which 90% are found on commercial livestock and game farms. During the 1980s, farmers killed large numbers of cheetahs and the cheetah population declined from 6,000 to less than 3,000 animals. We surveyed farmers to understand specific reasons for the population decline. We found that the primary problem was a perceived conflict with livestock farming. Game farmers reported more cheetah problems and removed higher numbers than livestock farmers. Our results suggest that new methods of livestock and wildlife management urgently need to be integrated with land management.

Marker_1999_Reducing_conflicts_between_Namibian_farmers_and_cheetahs.pdf

Marker L. 2000. Aspects of the ecology of the Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) on north central Namibian farmlands. Nambian Scientific Journal 48:40-48.

Namibia has the largest remaining population of free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in the world (approximately 2,500), 90% of which are found on commercial livestock and game farms. The management of predators on private land is a complex, difficult issue especially when an endangered species is involved. The primary problem is conflict with livestock farming, to which there are solutions other than traditional lethal predator control. To be compatible with the survival of wildlife, new methods of farm management, wildlife management and predator control urgently need to be incorporated into land management. Since 1991, the Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF), a Namibian based research and educational foundation, has been conducting integrated and multi-disciplinary research to provide base-line knowledge on the biology and ecology of the cheetah to help to conserve the species. An over-view of CCF's methods and research findings will be discussed.

Marker_2000_Ecology_of_cheetahs_on_Namibian_farmlands.pdf

Marker L, Olson C. 2001. Report on a Mission to I. R. of Iran 15 p.

Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF)  Executive Director Laurie Marker and Science Advisor Cynthia Olson met with government officials and researchers dealing with the Iranian cheetah rescue programme. The six day visit included meetings in Tehran and a field trip to Kharturan Biosphere Reserve in Semnan Province. Goals of the mission were to visit cheetah habitat, assess their suitability for cheetah survival, get familiar with the conservation issues affecting cheetah populations and find out how CCF can best assist I.R. of Iran in saving its endangered cheetah population.

Marker_&_Olson_2001_Report_on_a_mission_to_Iran.pdf

Marker L, Munson L, Basson PA, Quaokenbush S. 2003. Mulicentric T-cell lymphoma associated with feline leukemia virus infection in a captive Namibian cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). J Wildl Dis 39(3):690-5.

This case report describes a multicentric lymphoma in a four year old female wildborn captive cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in Namibia after being housed in an enclosure adjacent to a feline leukemia virus (FeLV) infected cheetah that had previously been in contact with domestic cats. The year prior to the onset of clinical signs, the wild-born cheetah was FeLV antigen negative. The cheetah subsequently developed lymphoma, was found to be infected with FeLV, and then rapidly deteriorated and died. At necropsy, the liver, spleen, lymph nodes, and multiple other organs were extensively infiltrated with neoplastic T-lymphocytes. Feline leukemia virus DNA was identified in neoplastic lymphocytes from multiple organs by polymerase chain reaction and Southern blot analysis. Although the outcome of infection in this cheetah resembles that of FeLV infections in domestic cats, the transmission across an enclosure fence was unusual and may indicate a heightened susceptibility to infection in cheetahs. Caution should be exercised in holding and translocating cheetahs where contact could be made with FeLV-infected domestic, feral, or wild felids.

Marker_et_al_2003_T_cell_lymphoma_with_feline_leukemia_in_a_cheetah.pdf

Marker L, Kraus D, Barnett D, Hurlbut S. 2003. Cheetah survival on Namibian farmlands. Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF). 85 p.

Global estimates indicate that cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) numbers have decreased from 100,000 in 1900 to as low as 12,000 in 1995. Due to loss of habitat to rising human populations, the wild cheetah populations are jeopardized by:
(1) a decline in the abundance of prey species, (2) the conversion of land to agriculture and livestock farming, and
(3) conflict with livestock farming interests. The largest population in the wild is found in Namibia, primarily on commercial livestock farmlands, and is estimated at 2 000 to 3 000 animals. Therefore, it is critical to establish the status of Namibia 's cheetah population and determine the attitudes for its survival in the country. From 1991-1993, the Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF) conducted an in-depth survey of Namibia's north central commercial farmlands. The survey addressed physical features, livestock management techniques, predator problems,  recommendations to reduce predator conflict, and observations of cheetah. Data collected was correlated with historical information and Namibia 's Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development statistics. It was evident from the survey that the Namibian farmers play a critical role in the survival of the species. Indiscriminate removal of cheetah for livestock and game protection appeared to be one of the biggest threats to the species, as well as counterproductive for predator control. Adjustment of livestock and game management methods may be more effective in reducing predator conflict. CCF recommends management techniques to ensure maximum diversity of wildlife through non-lethal and preventative predator control methods. This will not only reduce conflict with the cheetah and other predators, bur will work in harmony with the ecosystem.

Marker_et_al_2003_Cheetah_survival_on_Namibian_farmlands.pdf

Marker L, Dickman A. 2003. Conserving cheetahs outside protected areas: an example from Namibian farmlands. Cat News:24-25.

The vast majority of Namibia's cheetah reside on the commercial farmlands, where there is abundant prey-base and a lack of large competitors, such as lions and spotted hyaenas. Therefore the cheetahs are placed in direct conflict with livestock and game farmers. CCF initiated different livestock protection measures, which led to a dropping of cheetah removals by farmers.

Marker_&_Dickman_2003_Conserving_Cheetahs_outside_protected_areas_CatNews_38.pdf

Marker L, Dickman A. 2004. Human aspects of cheetah conservation: Lessons learned from the Namibian farmlands. Human Dimension of Wildlife 9:297-305.

Over the past century, the world's cheetah population has undergone severe reduction in both numbers and range. This is due to factors such as habitat fragmentation resulting from human development, the depletion of their natural prey base as land becomes dominated by agriculture and the resulting conflict with humans for livestock and farmed game. Although long-term studies have provided useful information regarding the ecology and biology of the cheetah, the real conservation challenge lies in a better understanding of human behaviour and attitudes toward the cheetah. Only by addressing human issues can cheetah conservation strategies be implemented across large areas of their range. This article examines and discusses novel approaches aimed at modifying human behaviour in those areas most critical for future cheetah conservation. These approaches could also be valuable in other areas where human conflict is a significant threat to the persistence of large carnivores.

Marker_&_Dickman_2004_Human_aspects_of_cheetah_conservation.pdf

Marker L. 2005. Iranian cheetah conservation. Animal Keepr's Forum 7/8:374-7.

The last half-century has seen the rapid decline of the world's last Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus). They are now extinct throughout the majority of their historic range, including Russia, India and the Middle East. The last stronghold of Asiatic cheetah is found on the edge of Dasht-e Kavir, a large area of desert and shrub steppe. This final population of critically endangered Asiatic cheetah occurs only in fragmented territories on the outer-ring of the Kavir Desert. Current estimates place the cheetah population in Iran at 50 to 60 individuals, a statistic boldly reaffirming the need for immediate cooperation and planning. The main threats to its survival are illegal killing and poaching, and habitat disturbance and degradation. Much of the cheetahs' former habitat has been converted to agriculture and other uses. In addition, lands have been fenced making it difficult for wildlife to move and the remaining range lands have been overgrazed that have lead to desertification. There is direct competition between wild and domestic livestock and antelope. Camels and other livestock often dominate and pollute water holes making them inaccessible to wildlife. The paper describes the conservation activities of the different organizations involved over the past few years.

Marker_2005_Iranian_cheetah_conservation.pdf

Marker L. 2005. The international cheetah studbook. Animal Keeper's Forum 32(7/8):378-83.

The International Cheetah Studbook has the purpose of registering all cheetah in the world held in both zoological and private facilities, and providing information about existing animals by publishing the studbook contents enabling the creation of the preconditions for selecting breeding animals. The first edition of the International Cheetah Studbook was published in 1988. The 2002 International Cheetah Studbook is the 12th edition and includes all cheetahs known to be alive as of 31 December 2002 and combines all information available for the period 1 January, 2002 to 31 December, 2002.

Marker_2005_The_international_cheetah_studbook.pdf

Marker L. 2005. Cheetah conservation in Namibia. Animal Keeper's Forum 32(7/8):330-8.

Protected areas provide important refuges for numerous species, but the successful conservation of many large carnivores depends on conserving them beyond the boundaries of such areas as well. The most critical component of successful conservation outside protected areas involves working with local communities to achieve sustainable human-wildlife coexistence, particularly when the species under consideration are large carnivores. Conservation initiatives on private land must combine a myriad of interrelated, community-based approaches, including habitat and prey-base conservation or restoration, education about predators, conflict resolution, and financial incentives. Educating local people about predators is critical to conservation, as there is often a lack of awareness that locally abundant species may be globally threatened, and local concerns must be recognised and addressed for any significant progress to be made.

Marker_2005_Cheetah_conservation_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker L. 2005. Aspects of ecology, biology and conservation strategies of Namibian farmland cheetahs. Animal Keeper's Forum 32(7/8):1-5.

Namibia has the largest remaining population of free-ranging cheetahs in the world (approximately 2,500), 90% of which are found on commercial livestock and game farms. The management of predators on private land is a complex, difficult issue especially when an endangered species is involved. The primary problem is conflict with livestock farming, to which there are solutions other than traditional lethal predator control. To be compatible with the survival of wildlife, new methods and policies of farm management, wildlife management and predator control urgently need to be incorporated into land management. Since 1991, the Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF), a Namibian-based research and educational foundation, has been conducting integrated and multi-diciplinary research to provide baseline knowledge on the biology and ecology of the cheetah to help conserve the species. An overview of CCF's research findings will be discussed and how programs developed in Namibia are now being used in other countries where cheetahs are in need. In addition, ideas as to how zoo keepers can assist in cheetah conservation will be presented.

Marker_2005_Namibian_farmland_cheetahs.pdf

Marker L. 2005. Overview of the global wild cheetah population. Animal Keeper's Forum 32(7/8):284-8.

The status of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), varies widely throughout its range with perhaps 32 countries where cheetahs are still found. All populations are classified as vulnerable or endangered by the World Conservation Union's (IUCN) Red Data Book and are regulated by the Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) as Appendix I. Although there has not been a comprehensive survey of African cheetahs since 1975, there is a consensus that the cheetah population is declining throughout Africa. Total number of cheetahs estimated at less than 15,000 is based on a literature review and mail questionnaire surveys and have been used as the source for data that is also published in the IUCN Cat Specialist group Wild Cats.

Marker_2005_The_wild_cheetah_population.pdf

Marker LL. 2002. Aspects of Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Biology, Ecology and Conservation Strategies on Namibian Farmlands [dissertation]. Lady Margaret Hall, University of Oxford.

In an increasingly human-dominated environment, the task of successfully conserving large carnivores, such as cheetahs, is difficult due to real or perceived threats resulting in conflict and often their local extirpation. This research describes the causes and potential solutions to this conflict in Namibia. Cheetah biology and ecology were studied through physical examination, laboratory analysis, radio-tracking and human perceptions using survey techniques. Between 1991 and 2000 data collected on over 400 live-captured and dead cheetahs showed that a perceived threat to livestock or game was the reason for 91.2% (n = 343) of cheetahs captured and 47.6% (n = 30) of wild cheetah deaths. Both were biased towards males, with 2.9 males being captured for every female, despite an apparent equality of sex ratio. Human-mediated mortality accounted for 79.4% (n = 50) of wild deaths reported, of which the majority involved prime adult animals, with a peak at around 5-6 years of age. Polymorphic microsatellite loci were used to assess 313 Namibian cheetahs' variation, gene flow, paternity and behavioural ecology. Genetic analysis showed limited regional differentiation supporting a panmictic population and that persistence in Namibia depends on dispersal from regions throughout the country; therefore efforts of connectivity throughout the country should continue. Relatedness values confirmed family groups, and 45 new potential sire/dam offspring and 7 sibling groups were identified, providing information on dispersal and the success of translocation. Sera from wild cheetah were assessed for exposure to feline and canine virus antibodies to CDV, FCoV/FIP, FHV1, FPV, and FCV; antibodies were detected in 24%, 29%, 12%, 48%, and 65%, respectively, showing infection occurs in wild cheetahs; although there was no evidence of disease at time of capture, these diseases are known to cause serious clinical disease in captive cheetahs. Neither FIV antibodies nor FeLV antigens were present in any wild cheetahs tested, however, the first case of FeLV in a non-domestic felid is described in a captive Namibian cheetah. Concern for contact with domestic animals is discussed. Focal Palatine Erosion (FPE), a dental abnormality found in captive cheetahs, was discovered in over 70% of the wild cheetahs and was correlated with dental malocclusions, and is of concern to the long-term health of wild cheetahs. Namibian cheetahs have a mean 95% kernel home range of 1642.3 km2 (+ 1565.1 km2), the largest home ranges yet defined. Habitat type significantly affected the cheetah's spatial distribution and prey density. Radio-collared female cheetahs were more closely related to other cheetahs in the study area than males, indicating male dispersal. Continual cheetah perturbation may partially explain the unusually low density of cheetahs in this area (estimated at only 2.5 cheetahs per 1000km2) despite the apparent abundance of prey. Namibian farmers originally surveyed revealed a mean removal of 19 cheetahs per year/farm, even when not considered a problem, and higher removals occurred on game farms. Evidence for actual livestock depredation was negligible, only 3% of reported captures. Scat analysis revealed cheetahs' selection for indigenous game, however 5% of scats contained evidence of livestock. Research conducted on methods of conflict resolution showed that placing Anatolian Shepherd livestock-guarding dogs proved to be effective, with 76% of farmers reporting a large decline in livestock losses since acquiring an Anatolian. Such solutions appear effective in increasing farmer's tolerance for cheetahs, and by the end of the study period cheetah removals dropped to a mean of 2.1 cheetahs/farm/year. Implementing strategies such as these could be significant for reducing human-carnivore conflict in the many other places in which it occurs.

Marker_2002_Cheetah_conservation_on_Namibian_farmland.pdf

Marker LL, Dickman AJ. 2003. Morphology, physical condition, and growth of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus). J Mamm 84(3):840-50.

Information regarding morphology of wild cheetahs is scant, and even where data exist they rarely were collected using a standardized methodology. We used a consistent technique to examine 241 wild Namibian cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) to study morphology, sexual dimorphism, growth rates, and physical condition and to investigate how these data compared with those in previous studies. Significant sexual dimorphism was evident for all measurements. The majority of cheetahs were in excellent condition at the time of examination, although old cheetahs and those that had been held captive for more than a month were in significantly poorer condition. Both male and female cheetahs reached adult body mass at 49-96 months of age. These data differed significantly from those collected during other studies, although such differences may be due to variations in collection methodology. It is therefore vital to standardize morphometric data collection techniques so that the true extent of differences between populations can be assessed more accurately. A suggested standardized collection methodology is presented.

Marker_&_Dickman_2003_Cheetah_conservation_and_growth.pdf

Marker LL, Mills MGL, MacDonald DW. 2003. Factors influencing perceptions of conflict and tolerance toward cheetahs on Namibian farmlands. Conservation Biology 17(5):1290-8.

Namibia has the largest remaining population of free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in the world, 90% of which are found outside protected areas on commercial farms. We conducted a baseline survey of Namibian farmers between 1991 and 1993, with a yearly follow-up thereafter until 1999, to quantify the perceptions of farmers toward cheetahs. Specifically, we sought to identify factors that cause cheetahs to be perceived as pests and management practices that mitigate this perception. The baseline survey revealed that farmers who regarded cheetahs as problems removed an average of 29 cheetahs annually, whereas those who did not consider them problematic removed a mean of 14 annually. These figures dropped significantly to 3.5 and 2.0 cheetahs per year after the introduction of educational materials. The perception that cheetahs are pests was significantly associated with game farms, and the presence of "play trees" on farms emerged as a significant corollary of both negative perceptions and removals of cheetahs. Between 1991 and 1999, the mean annual number of cheetah removals significantly decreased from 19 to 2.1. Late in the study, cheetah killing was more closely correlated with perceived problems than in the early years of the study. These findings suggest that although cheetahs are still perceived as a problem, farmers' tolerance toward cheetahs has increased. Management strategies and economic incentives that promote cheetah conservation, such as the formation of conservancies, development of ecotourism, and marketing of "predator-friendly" meat, are essential for conserving cheetahs outside protected areas.

Marker_et_al_2003_Perception_and_tolerance_of_cheetahs.pdf

Marker LL, Dickman AJ, Mills MGL, MacDonald DW. 2003. Aspects of the management of cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus jubatus, trapped on Namibian farmlands. Biol Conserv 114:401-12.

The Namibian cheetah population has recently undergone serious decline due to human-mediated removals, and investigating the rates and causes of such removals is an important aspect of the future management of cheetah populations outside protected areas. We examined cheetahs that were reported live-trapped or killed on Namibian farmlands between 1991 and 1999. A perceived threat to livestock or game led to the vast majority of live captures and to almost half of the cheetah deaths investigated. Despite this, livestock predation from cheetahs appeared to be minimal, and was usually perpetrated by cheetahs with injuries. Most of the cheetahs were trapped in groups, and cheetahs' relative sociality leads to the easy removal of entire social units. Long-term monitoring must include detailed consideration of these indiscriminate removals, as they involve many cheetahs, fluctuate between years, often go unreported, and are likely to have a serious impact on cheetah populations outside protected areas.

Marker_et_al_2003_Management_of_cheetahs_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker LL, Dickman AJ, Leo RM, Mills MGL, MacDonald DW. 2003. Demography of the Namibian cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus jubatus. Biol Conserv 114:413-25.

Namibian cheetahs have suffered, and continue to suffer, high levels of removal due to conflict with local farmers, and it is important to understand the demography of this population in order to determine its likely persistence. Examination of cheetahs reported live-trapped or killed by local farmers, combined with subsequent information from radio-telemetry, allowed demographic parameters such as sex ratios, age and social structure, litter size, interbirth intervals and survivorship to be estimated for cheetahs on Namibian farmlands. Cub mortality was relatively low, but adult mortality was high, particularly for males, and peaked at 5-6 years of age. Neither marking nor relocating cheetahs seemed to affect survivorship, and there was no difference in survivorship between the sexes. Time spent in captivity did not appear to affect survival after release. These findings will be useful in formulating recommendations regarding the conservation and sustainable utilization of cheetah populations outside protected areas.

Marker_et_al_2003_Demography_of_the_Namibian_cheetah.pdf

Marker LL, Muntifering JR, Dickman AJ, Mills M.G.L., MacDonald DW. 2003. Quantifying prey preference of free-ranging Namibian cheetahs. S Afr J Wildl Res 33, 43-53.

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) has long been regarded as a significant threat to the interests of farmers of both game and livestock in Namibia and for this reason has been removed in large numbers. However, the diet of these cheetahs has not been documented; such documentation is an important component of any effective conservation plan. We performed feeding trials to relate more accurately the remains found in cheetah scats to the number of prey animals consumed. Using scat analysis techniques, we found that cheetah prey size ranged from birds and hares to large antelope. They rarely preyed on domestic stock, with apparent selection towards common, indigenous game species. Information gathered from aerial sightings of kills was significantly biased towards larger prey species. Data on the number of times cheetahs were seen near livestock or game were found to not be representative of the type of prey taken when compared to corrected scat analysis. Due to the diurnal nature and wide-ranging habits of cheetahs, they are sighted relatively frequently near stock, which may contribute to an exaggerated perception of their predation on stock. From the results of this study, livestock predation by cheetahs was estimated to account for at least 0.01 calves and 0.004 sheep per km2 on the Namibian farmlands, and may be substantially more depending on cheetah density. Any stock losses as a result of cheetahs and other predators can have economic impacts for farmers, and management techniques for mitigating such losses are suggested. The use of controlled feeding trials and subsequent calculation of a correction factor for scat analysis could be a valuable tool for gaining a more accurate estimate of carnivore diet in future studies.

Marker_et_al_2003_Prey_preferences_of_Namibian_cheetahs.pdf

Marker LL, Dickman A. 2004. Dental Anomalies and incidence of palatal erosion in Namibian Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus). J Mamm 85,:19-24.

Two hundred and eight wild-caught cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) were live trapped on Namibian farmlands and examined for signs of dental anomalies. Three anomalies were recorded: erosion of the upper palate (possibly a predisposition to focal palatine erosion, where the first lower molar penetrates the palatine mucosa), crowding of lower incisors, and absence of one or both upper premolars. Just over 40% of cheetahs examined showed deep palatine erosion, and 15.3% of these had perforated upper palates. In addition, 31.7% of cheetahs examined had crowded lower incisors and 20.9% had one or both upper premolars missing. The incidence of focal palatine erosion is of particular interest as it has previously been recorded only in captive cheetahs, where it was attributed to a soft captive diet, and not previously recorded for wild individuals. To attempt further understanding of potential causes of such erosion, degree of erosion was examined in relation to sex, age, region, time in captivity, and occurrence of other dental anomalies. No relationship was found between severity of erosion and time spent in captivity, while juveniles showed more severe erosion than adult cheetahs. Cheetahs missing either one or both upper premolars showed a higher incidence of deep erosion, as was true for cheetahs that exhibited crowded lower incisors. The traditional explanation of focal palatine erosion being an artifact of captivity does not explain its occurrence in this sample population of cheetahs, the majority of which were raised entirely in the wild.

Marker_&_Dickman_2004_Dental_anomalies_in_Namibian_cheetahs.pdf

Marker LL.  A happy Thanksgiving for cheetah cubs in Ethiopia.  2005. Ref Type: Internet Communication.

This article about the rescue of two orphaned cheetah cubs in Cope, Ethiopia by US soldiers, with the help of the CCF is an example of the illegal trade in live wild endangered cats.

Cet article sur le sauvetage de deux jeunes guépards orphelins à Cope en Ethiopie par des soldats américains avec l'aide du CCF est un exemple du trafic illégal des félins vivants menacés.

Marker_2005_Ethiopian_cheetahs_cubs_rescued.pdf

Marker LL, Dickman AJ, MacDonald DW. 2005. Survivorship and causes of mortality of livestock-guarding dogs on Namibian ranches. Rangeland Ecology and Management 58(4):337-43.

This paper reports upon the survivorship of 143 livestock-guarding dogs placed on Namibian rangeland between January 1994 and January 2002 as part of a study of techniques that could be used to reduce stock losses on commercial ranches and communal farms. During the study period, 61 (42.7%) of the dogs placed were removed from working situations. Deaths accounted for 49 (80.3%) of removals, while the remaining 12 (19.7%) were transfers out of the program. Causes of death varied by both farm type and age group. The most common cause of death for working dogs, especially young ones, was accidental, which accounted for 22 reported deaths, while culling of the dog by the owner was the reason for 12 working dog deaths, all of which occurred on commercial ranches. The mean survival time as a working dog was estimated as 4.16 (±0.40) years for males, 4.65 (±0.45) years for females, and 4.31 (±0.31) years for all dogs placed. Survival distributions differed slightly (P=0.049) between farm types, with adult mortality less common on communal farms than on commercial ranches. There was no significant difference (P=0.612) between the sexes regarding survival distributions. With good care of the dogs and sufficient information provided to farmers, guarding dogs can act as an effective and economically beneficial method of livestock protection, with implications for range management both in Namibia and elsewhere.

Marker_et_al_2005_Mortality_of_livestock-guarding_dogs_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker LL, Dickman AJ, MacDonald DW. 2005. Perceived effectiveness of livestock-guarding dogs placed on Namibian farms. Rangeland Ecology and Management 58(4):329-36.

Evaluations of 117 livestock-guarding dogs placed on Namibian farms between January 1994 and November 2001 were conducted as part of a study aimed at reducing livestock depredation rates on both commercial and communal farmland. The perceptions of livestock farmers were evaluated in terms of their satisfaction with the guarding dogs, the level of care given to the dogs, and the attentiveness, trustworthiness, and protectiveness of the dogs. Guarding dogs were very successful in terms of reducing livestock losses, with 73% of responding farmers reporting a large decline in losses since acquisition of a guarding dog, and the same percentage seeing an economic benefit to having the dog. Farmer satisfaction with the dogs was high, with 93% of farmers willing to recommend the program, and the care given to the dogs was also good. The dogs exhibited high levels of protectiveness and attentiveness, although trustworthiness was relatively low. The level of care provided by farmers was lower for older dogs than for younger dogs, and older dogs appeared to be less trustworthy than young dogs. There were no obvious differences in effectiveness between the sexes, or between dogs placed on communal farms and those on commercial ranches. The majority of dogs exhibited behavioral problems at some stage, particularly chasing game, staying at home, and harassing livestock, but corrective training solved 61% of the reported problems. We conclude that with the correct training and care, livestock-guarding dogs can be an effective method of livestock protection on Namibian farmlands.

Marker_et_al_2005_Effectiveness_of_live-stock_guarding_dogs_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker LL, Pearks Wilkerson AJ, Sarno RJ, Martenson J, Breitenmoser-Würsten Ch, O'Brien SJ, Johnson WE. 2008. Molecular genetics insights on cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) ecology and conservationn in Namibia.
Journal of Heredity 99(1):2-13.

The extent and geographic patterns of molecular genetic diversity of the largest remaining free-ranging cheetah population were described in a survey of 313 individuals from throughout Namibia. Levels of relatedness, including paternity/maternity (parentage), were assessed across all individuals using 19 polymorphic microsatellite loci, and unrelated cheetahs (n = 89) from 7 regions were genotyped at 38 loci to document broad geographical patterns. There was limited differentiation among regions, evidence that this is a generally panmictic population. Measures of genetic variation were similar among all regions and were comparable with Eastern African cheetah populations. Parentage analyses confirmed several observations based on field studies, including 21 of 23 previously hypothesized family groups, 40 probable parent/offspring pairs, and 8 sibling groups. These results also verified the successful integration and reproduction of several cheetahs following natural dispersal or translocation. Animals within social groups (family groups, male coalitions, or sibling groups) were generally related. Within the main study area, radio-collared female cheetahs were more closely interrelated than similarly compared males, a pattern consistent with greater male dispersal. The long-term maintenance of current patterns of genetic variation in Namibia depends on retaining habitat characteristics that promote natural dispersal and gene flow of cheetahs.

Marker_et_al_2008_Genetic_insight_on_cheetah_in_Namibia.pdf

Marker_et_al_2008_Spatial_ecology_of_cheetahs_on_Namibian_farmland.pdf

Marnewick K., Funston PJ and Karanth KU 2008. Evaluating camera trapping as a method for estimating cheetah abundance in ranching areas. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 38(1): 59-65.

In order to accurately assess the status of the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus it is necessary to obtain data on numbers and demographic trends. However, cheetahs are notoriously difficult to survey because they occur at very low population densities and are often shy and elusive. In South Africa the problem is further complicated in areas where land is privately owned, restricting access, with dense bush and cheetahs that are frequently persecuted. Cheetahs are individually identifiable by their unique spot patterns, making them ideal candidates for capture-recapture surveys. Photographs of cheetahs were obtained using four camera traps placed successively at a total of 12 trap locations in areas of known cheetah activity within a 300 km² area in the Thabazimbi district of the Limpopo Province. During 10 trapping periods, five different cheetahs were photographed. These results were used to generate capture histories for each cheetah and the data were analysed using the capture-recapture software package CAPTURE. Closure tests indicated that the population was closed (P = 0.056). The Mh model was used to deal with possible heterogeneous capture probabilities among individual cheetahs. Closure tests did not reject the model assumption of population closure (P = 0.056).The Mh model produced a capture probability of 0.17 with an estimate of 6-14 cheetahs (P = 0.95) and a mean population size of seven cheetahs (S.E. = 1.93). These results are promising and will be improved with employment of more camera traps and sampling a larger area.

Marnewick_et_al_2008_Camera_trapping_as_method_for_estimating_cheetah_abundance.pdf

Martin LD, Gilbert BM, Adams DB. 1977. A cheetah-like cat in the North American pleistocene. Science 195(4282):981-2.

The discovery of abundant skeletal remains of Felis trumani from a late Pleistocene deposit in Wyoming shows that it was as highly modified for cursorial locomotion as the cheetah (Acinonyx). Several other Pleistocene felids that have been regarded as pumas seem to be related forms. The late Pleistocene fauna of the Big Horn Basin in Wyoming is dominated by cursorial taxa.

Martin_et_al_1977_Cheetah-like_cat_in_the_NAmerican_pleistocene.pdf

Mauney G. 2006. Putting research into action - improving life for Namibians. Conservation:36-37.

Many researches papers line desk drawers, meaning nothing in developing countries without practical applications. With these and other important programmes, the CCF is putting research into action, improving live for Namibians and helping to ensure survival of the cheetah.

Mauney_2006_Putting_Research_into_Action_Improving_Life_for_Namibians.pdf

May RM. 1995. The cheetah controversy. Nature 374:309-10.

In 1983, O'Brien et al. announced that cheetahs have remarkably little genetic variability. However, independent researchers, Caughley and Merola, studying 24 other carnivores, argued that cheetahs are not especially impoverished and deny that there is much evidence of any deleterious effects in the form of inbreeding depression. Current thinking may rightly recognize that lack of genetic diversity is not the primary factor for most endangered species. But O'Brien's concern nevertheless remains an important consideration for many conservation programmes, and particularly for cheetahs.

May_1995_The_cheetah_controversy.pdf

McCarthy T, Dorfman A. 2004. Nowhere to roam. Time:29-39.

Wildlife reserves alone cannot protect big cats. A look at new ways to save cheetahs, jaguars, lions, leopards, tigers, pumas and the Iberian lynx are presented.

McCarthy_&_Dorfman_2004_Nowhere_to_roam.pdf

McVittie R. 1979. Changes in the social behaviour of South West African cheetah. Madoqua 11(3):191-84.

The social patterns of South African cheetah are compared to those of East African cheetah. The data analyzed suggest that in the absence of large interspecific competitors grouping of cheetah occurs, prey size expands and litter size increases. No evidence of allo-parenting was found although both females and males exhibited social tendencies.

McVittie_1979_Social_behaviour_of_cheetah.pdf

Médard P, Traoré M. V., Berzins R. Rencensement des observations de guépards et autres carnivores dans les aires protégées de l'ouest du Burkino Faso. (Survey for carnivores in Burkina Faso). Awely, France. 53 pp.

Investigative report of the census observations of cheetahs and other carnivores in protected areas of western Burkina Faso. The objective of this mission was to evaluate the status of cheetahs in the protected areas of Burkina Faso by questioning trackers, hunting guides, and dealers on their observations of large carnivores in the past five years, based on a survey used in 2005-2006 by the French-Benin team in the protected areas of northern Benin.

Medard_et_al_2010_Survey_for_carnivores_in_protected_areas_in_Burkina_Faso.pdf

Meftah T, Hamdine O, Abdellah S. 2001. Conservation du Guépard (Acinonyx jubatus Schreber, 1776) dans la région de: L Ahaggar et du Tassili N Adjer (en Algérie) Gland Suisse: UICN; 56 p.

The North African cheetahs (Acinoyx jubatus), with caracals (Caracal caracal) and wild cats (Felis lybica, F. margarita and F. sylvestris) is one of last wild Felidae of the region. The habitat deterioration, poaching and population isolation will cause the irreversible decline of the species. The necessity of an efficient conservation strategy of the cheetah in the North Africa for its conservation and rehabilitation proves to be then evident. In the 19^th century the cheetah inhabited probably all the Sahara, but today it has disappeared in numerous areas and is seriously menaced of disappearance. Recent observations report the cheetah in the Lassili N'Adjer and the Hoggar regions, where its presence seems actually very likely. 14 wilayahs have been interviewed about the presence of the cheetah: most recent observations come from Illizi and Tamanrasset in 1996 and from Bechar between 1969 and 1976. In 1997, two skins have been found in nomadic camps in the region of Ouedenki. A killed animal has been recovered from the region of Tin Tarabine in 1999 and another dead specimen was found in 2000 in a shaft at Oued Toufedet. The action plan must guarantee the durability of the ovine, caprine and camel breeding in the Ahaggar and Tassili regions, and ensure the installation of a viable population of cheetahs. An experimentation period is intended to test different means of flock protection and attacks' prevention, in order to determine what are the best conditions for an optimal efficiency of these methods. After a three years test an evaluation will be achieved to eventually consider a revision plan. Additionally proposals include farmers compensation for attacked animals, habitat protection, reserves establishment, reinforcement of legal execution, and education and awareness actions.

Meftah_et_al_2001_Prog_UICN_2001_Conservation_du_Guepard_en_Algerie_1.pdf .pdf

Meftah_et_al_2001_Prog_UICN_2001_Conservation_du_Guepard_en_Algerie_2_a_3.pdf

Meftah_et_al_2001_Prog_UICN_2001_Conservation_du_Guepard_en_Algerie_4_&_5.pdf

Meftah_et_al_2001_Prog_UICN_2001_Conservation_du_Guepard_en_Algerie_Conclu_&_Annexe.pdf

Mendelssohn H.  Felids in Israel 6 p.

There are no reliable records of cheetahs from Israel for the 20^th century, apart from one relatively recent observation that is mentioned here. Harrison (1968) states that there have been no reliable records of the cheetah for the whole of the Arabian peninsula since 1950. There are, however, two sightings from 1959 on the Beer Sheva - Eilat road and a record from Jordan of a female and her cub that were killed in 1962.

Mendelssohn_-_Felids_in_Israel.pdf

Menotti-Raymond M, O'Brien SJ. 1993. Dating the genetic bottleneck of the African cheetah. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:3172-6.

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is unusual among felids in exhibiting near genetic uniformity at a variety of loci previously screened to measure population genetic diversity. It has been hypothesized that a demographic crash or population bottleneck in the recent history of the species is causal to the observed monomorphic profiles for nuclear coding loci. The timing of a bottleneck is difficult to assess, but certain aspects of the cheetah's natural history suggest it may have occurred near the end of the last ice age (late Pleistocene, approximately 10,000 years ago), when a remarkable extinction of large vertebrates occurred on several continents. To further define the timing of such a bottleneck, the character of genetic diversity for two rapidly evolving DNA sequences, mitochondrial DNA and hypervariable minisatellite loci, was examined. Moderate levels of genetic diversity were observed for both of these indices in surveys of two cheetah subspecies, one from South Africa and one from East Africa. Back calculation from the extent of accumulation of DNA diversity based on observed mutation rates for VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats) loci and mitochondrial DNA supports a hypothesis of an ancient Pleistocene bottleneck that rendered the cheetah depauperate in genetic variation for nuclear coding loci but would allow sufficient time for partial reconstitution of more rapidly evolving genomic DNA segments.

Menotti-Raymond_&_OBrien_1993_Genetic_bottleneck_of_the_African_cheetah.pdf

Menotti-Raymond M, O'Brien SJ. 1995. Hypervariable genomic variation to reconstruct the natural history of populations: Lessons from the big cats. Electrophoresis 16, 1771-1774.

The extent and nature of variation in hypervariable regions of DNA have been used in the past as a means to infer the natural histories of populations. We review the interpretation of the extent of genetic diversity for minisatellite DNA in the cheetah to estimate the timing of a population bottleneck in the species and the potential application of a second class of hypervariable DNA, microsatellite DNA, as a molecular tool to examine the natural histories of felid populations. A calibration curve relating the degree of allele fragment sharing in individuals to relatedness in a captive pedigree of cheetahs is presented. This measurement has important applications for management of potential matings in captive management situations.

Menotti-Raymond_&_OBrien_1995_Feline_DNA_fingerprinting.pdf

Menotti-Raymond M, O'Brien SJ. 1995. Evolutionary conservation of ten microsatellite loci in four species of Felidae. Journal of Heredity 86(4):319-22.

Short tandem repeat polymorphismus (STRP), or microsatellites, are widespread among vertebrate genomes and are useful in gene mapping and population studies due to their high level of length polymorphism. The authors describe the isolation, characterisation, and PCR amplification of 10 microsatellite loci from the domestic cat, Felis catus. The flanking primer sequences were conserved among other Felidae species, and amplification products demonstrated abundant polymorphism in puma, lion, cheetah, and domestic cat. The cheetah sample exhibited the lowest level of polymorphism for these loci among felid species.

Menotti-Raymond_&_OBrien_1995_Microsatellite_loci_in_felids.pdf

Merner S. 2005. Developing a behaviour modification program for your cheetah. Animal Keeper's Forum 32(7/8):323-4.

The most effective trainers are the ones who can successfully combine the art and science of operant conditioning into a flawless dance. If you have ever seen a truly talented trainer, then you have witnessed this dance, this unspoken language. You have seen firs-hand the respect, trust and ease that the trainer and animal are sharing. However, this has been a learning process for both the trainer and the cat. The article gives guidance on how to become a good trainer.

Merner_2005_Behavior_modification_program_for_your_cheetah.pdf

Merola M. 1994. A reassessment of homozygosity and the case for inbreeding depression in the cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus: Implications for conservation. Conservation Biology 8(4):961-71.

Preservation of genetic diversity within declining populations of endangered species is a major concern in the discipline of conservation biology. The endangered cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus, exhibits relatively little genetic variability (polymorphism = 0.02-0.04, heterozygosity = 0.0004-0.014). Since the discovery of the cheetah's relative homozygosity, this species has been frequently cited as an example of one whose survival may be compromised by the loss of genetic diversity. The cheetah's genetic uniformity is generally believed to be the result of an historical population bottleneck followed by a high level of inbreeding. Evidence offered in support of this hypothesis includes the cheetah's present low level of genetic variability and symptoms of inbreeding depression in captive populations. Using available data on fluctuating asymmetry and genetic variation in other carnivores, I question the assumption that the present level of genetic diversity in the cheetah is indicative of a loss of former variability. Carnivores exhibit significantly lower levels of genetic variation than other mammals, and several carnivores for which data are available exhibit lower levels of heterozygosity and polymorphism than the cheetah does. Measures of fluctuating asymmetry do not support the hypothesis that the cheetah is suffering an increased level of homozygosity due to genetic stress. Many of the phenotypic effects attributed to inbreeding depression, such as infertility, reduced litter sizes, and increased susceptibility to disease, are limited to captive individuals and may be explained as physiological or behavioral artifacts of captivity. In sum, the genetic constitution of the cheetah does not appear to compromise the survival of the species. Conservation efforts may be more effectively aimed at a real, immediate threat to the cheetah's future: the loss of its natural habitat.

Merola_1994_Reassessment_of_homozygosity_in_cheetahs.pdf

Miller-Edge MA, Worley MB. 1991. In vitro mitogen responses and lymphocyte subpopulations in cheetahs. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 28:337-49.

Lack of genetic variability and apparent susceptibility of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) to coronavirus infection has lead to speculation that this species may have immune system deficits. To establish a foundation for evaluation of the immune function, cheetah peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBM) were stimulated by a panel of six mitogens, and responses compared with those of domestic cat PBM. Individual responses in both species were variable, but evenly distributed throughout the range of stimulation for each mitogen. Proliferation by PBM from domestic cats occured within the same range as that of the cheetahs. However, a significantly lower response to peanut agglutinin (PNA) was observed with domestic cat PBM. Although responses varied between animals, certain individual cheetahs were consistent responders. The decreased values could not be explained by lack of IL-2 responsiveness since exogenous IL-2 significantly enhanced mitogen-stimulated proliferation in 11 of 12 cheetahs tested. The phenotypic distribution of domestic cat and cheetah lymphocyte subpopulations was similar as assessed by immunofluorescence staining for surface immunoglobulin (sIg) and cytotoxic T (Tc) cells (using a specific monoclonal antibody, FT2). Values for B cells (31.2% sIg+) and Tc (28.7% FT2 +) were slightly higher in domestic cats as compared with cheetah PBM (13.3% sIg+; 19.0% FT2+). Even though no species-specific deficits were detected, a significant negative correlation between PHA-stimulated proliferation and percent FT2+ (Tc) cheetah cells was observed. This indicates that proliferation can be used indirectly to assess relative numbers of functional T helper cells in cheetahs. Our studies suggest that these aspects of the cheetah's immune system are comparable with the domestic cat, and establish a basis for in vitro assays evaluating antigen-specific responses.

Miller-Edge_&_Worley_1991_Immune_response_in_cheetahs.pdf

Miller-Edge MA, Worley MB. 1992. In vitro responses of cheetah mononuclear cells to feline herpesvirus-1 and Cryptococcus neoformans. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 30:261-74.

In vitro T cell function by domestic cats and cheetahs to two common pathogens, feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) and Cryptococcus neoformans, was assessed. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBM) were stimulated with two strains of UV-inactivated FHV-1, whole heat-killed organisms or capsular antigen of Cryptococcus neoformans, and proliferative responses measured. As a group, cheetah PBM responded significantly poorer than domestic cat PBM when cultured with FHV-1. However, individual cheetah responses varied widely. Supplementation of cultures with exogenous interleukin 2 (IL-2) significantly increased the level of response of individual cheetahs to both strains of FHV-1. Cheetah sera contained slightly higher neutralizing antibody titers to FHV-1 than did domestic cat sera, suggesting that B cells function adequately in cheetahs. When stimulated with Cryptococcus neoformans, both species had similar incidences of positive proliferative responses. These data demonstrate that cheetahs exhibit heterogeneous responses to specific antigens, similar to domestic cats. However, a lower group response to FHV-1 in cheetahs suggests species differences occur. In addition, level of variability in major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-like genes, as determined by Southern blot hybridization, does not appear to correlate with a uniform response in vitro functional assays. Therefore, additional mechanisms influence the final outcome of the immune response.

Miller-Edge_&_Worley_1992_Responses_of_cheetah_mononuclear_cells_to_pathogens.pdf

Millington SJ, Tiega A. 1991. Biological diversity assessment for Niger WWF Niger; Report, 23 p.

At least 127 species of mammals have been recorded from Niger. Of these, 28 are bats and 27 are small rodents. A table shows the status, principal areas occupied and reasons for decline of the larger mammals. Based on censuses, studies and observations made between 1985 and 1990, the estimated number of cheetah is not superior of 200 individuals. According to the IUCN categories the cheetah is listed as "vulnerable". Causes of decline include poaching and hunting, skin and animal trade, eradication by farmers, and drought and desertification. Aïr and Termit areas are the principal areas frequented by the cheetah.

Millington_&_Tiega_1991_Biological_diversity_assessment_for_Niger.pdf

Mills M.G.L. 2002. Report on a Rapid Biological Survey of the Nayabandan Wildlife Refuge and Impressions of the Issues Facing Cheetah Conservation in the Area. Report, 20 p.

This report describes the rapid biological survey in Nayabandan Wildlife Refuge (16 - 24 May 2002) and discusses the issues pertinent to the conservation of the cheetah in this area. The very low animal densities in Nayabandan are believed to be due to the aridity of the area, caused by the severe draught of the last few years, and illegal hunting. The striped hyaena was found to be the most widespread of the larger carnivores in Nayabandan, however, this species is very unlikely to have a detrimental effect on the cheetah population. Direct killing of wildlife by people is probably the biggest threat to the cheetah and its prey populations in Nayabandan. The immediate task is the protection of the cheetah, the reconstruction of its habitat, and a sustainable and meaningful research and monitoring program of the important ecological, sociological and economic aspects.

Mills_2002_Report_on_a_survey_of_cheetah_in_Iran.pdf

Mills LS. 1996. Cheetah extinction: Genetics or extrinsic factors? Conservation Biology 10(2):315.

In this article letter the author gives his opinion about the debate addressed by Laurenson et al  over the cheetah conservation strategy, on the Conservation Biology journal of 1996. He did not take a position in favour of genetic or extrinsic factors, on the contrary he pointed out that a view toward interactions between genetics and environmental, behavioural, and demographic factors would move us further toward helping small and isolated populations.

Mills_1996_Cheetah_extinction_by_genetic_or_extrinsic_factors.pdf

Mills MGL. 1984. Prey selection and feeding habits of the large carnivores in the southern Kalahari. Koedoe(Supplement):281-94.

Prey selection and feeding habits of lions Panthera leo, spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta, cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus and leopards Panthera pardus are investigated. Lions kill mainly adult gemsbok Oryx gazella and blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus, tending to select older animals of both species and males in the case of gemsbok. Spotted hyenas also prey mainly on gemsbok and wildebeest, but select for juveniles, particularly from gemsbok. Cheetahs prey heavily on springbok Antidorcas marsupialis lambs and then on adult males and older individuals. Leopards also prey relatively heavily on springbok, but appear to have a small impact on their prey populations in the southern Kalahari, although in the case of springbok they do appear to influence the structure of the population.

Mills_1984_Prey_selection_of_large_carnivores.pdf

Mills MGL. 1989. Cheetah and wild dog research in the Kruger National Park in 1988 - A progress report. Quagga:5-6.

The report deals with the author's research activities on the cheetah and wild dog during 1988, cooperative projects between the National Parks Board and the Endangered Wildlife Trust. Much of this work forms part of a wider project on the ecological relationships between the large carnivores in the Lower Sabie - Crocodile Bridge region of the Kruger National Park. Three large males of the region were radio-collared and followed to study their movements and behaviour. Two young adult male cheetahs came into the area, but they soon moved down onto the Crocodile River, where the bush is rather thick and the hunting is difficult. Their condition deteriorated and developed severe sarcoptic mange. These observations are important because they add strength to the idea that much of Kruger is not ideal cheetah habitat, and that the area can only support a rather low density of these carnivores. Two females with her cubs were also followed in the region and it is hoping of the monitoring of their dispersal.

Mills_1989_Cheetah_research_in_Kruger_NP.pdf

Mills MGL. 1990. Lion (Panthera leo) and cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in Kruger National Park. Cat News:27, 6p.

Part of this study looks at the impact of the cheetah as a predator in the ecosystem of the Kruger National Park. They are more regular killers than lions are, but there is a lot less variability in what cheetah kill. Their top prey species, impala, makes up about 46%. Besides looking at the territorial behaviour of cheetahs at the Kruger National Park, the impact of thick bushes, fire, burning and diseases on the population was assessed.

Mills_1990_Lion_and_Cheetah_in_Kruger_NP_CatNews_12.pdf

Mills MGL. 1991. Conservation management of large carnivores in Africa. Koedoe 34:81-90.

The conservation management of large carnivores in Africa is reviewed. In large protected areas the complexity of the relations between predators and prey, and between competing predators, indicate that these relationships should not be disturbed, even though, superficially, there may seem to be sound reasons to do so. Management action, however,  may have to be taken against carnivores which break out of reserves. The related questions of translocation and re-introduction are also complex. Guidelines for considering whether to and how to implement these strategies are presented. It is stressed that adequate follow-up observation should be made after translocation or re-introducing carnivores, so that more information on the success of these strategies can be obtained. Much of Africa comprises rural areas inhabited by pastoralists. It may be possible to manage some large carnivore species in these areas to the mutual benefit of man and beast, but for this type of program to be successful, a well planned public relations campaign is essential.

Mills_1991_Consevation_management_of_large_carnivores_in_Africa.pdf

Mills MGL. 1991. Thick bush and stronger predators complicate cheetah's hunt. Custos:16-18.

In the Kruger National Park the cheetah is also a low density species. Over the last few years I have been studying these cheetahs to gain an understanding of the factors that limit their numbers. It is essential to fit radio transmitting collars to some animals. Two females and one male of a unseparable triumvirate, which had been together for at least six years were radio-collared and observed.

Mills_1991_Thick_Bush_and_Stronger_Predators_complicate_cheetahs_hunt.pdf

Mills MGL, Broomhall LS, du Toit JT. 2004. Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus feeding ecology in the Kruger National Park and a comparison across Africa savanna habitats: is the cheetah only a successful hunter on open grassland plains? Wildlife Biology 10(3):177-86.

The literature on cheetah Acinonyx jubatus ecology is dominated by studies on the Serengeti Plains (SNP) in East Africa. Because of this and the cheetah's hunting strategy it is generally considered to be a predator that prefers open grassland plains. However, cheetahs also inhabit a range of bush, scrub and woodland habitats. A field study using direct observations of radio-collared individuals in the woodland savanna habitat of the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, and a literature review of studies across savanna habitats examined cheetah predation, hunting behaviour and habitat use in relation to prey composition, cover availability and kleptoparasitism. The cheetah's main prey is medium-sized herbivores, with a bias towards male prey. The group size and sex of the hunting cheetah may influence the results of prey selection studies as male coalitions tend to take larger prey than females. Cheetahs initiated more hunts and had a higher success rate in the open woodland savanna of the KNP compared to other available habitats with thicker bush, and in other wooded savanna areas they also prefer more open habitat for hunting. Although they appear to have shorter chase distances in more wooded habitats, hunting success appears to be slightly higher in open grassland habitat. Woody vegetation appears to obstruct the cheetah's high-speed hunting strategy, thereby lowering hunting success. However, cheetahs use cover for stalking prey and open habitats with bordering woodlands, or patches of cover are considered preferred cheetah habitats. In these habitats, cheetahs can stalk closer to their prey using available cover, but also successfully pursue their prey into available open spaces. Across African savanna ecosystems, cheetahs appear to be kleptoparasitised less in more wooded habitats. Therefore they may also prefer these habitats because they provide greater concealment from kleptoparasites. Our study suggests that the cheetah is more adaptable to habitat variability than is often thought and is not only a successful hunter on open grassland plains.

Mills_et_al_2004_Cheetah_feeding_ecology_in_Kruger_NP.pdf

Mishra MK. 1996. Re-introduction of "cheetah" into the wild in India - is there a case? Zoo's Print Ten Years(January 1996):11-2.

 To see the cheetah back into the Indian wilds has been a fond hope and dream with many an Indian wildlifer and conservationist. Cheetah is the only large mammal of India to have gone extinct within historical times. According to the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, it was only in 1947 that the last cheetah was shot in the Ramgarh area of north-east Madhya Pradesh. During the seventies and eighties of the 20th century a serious attempt was made by the Government of India, to procure some numbers of cheetahs from the relict free-ranging population in Iran. the scheme, for some reasons, failed to materialize, but does there exist a case for yet another attempt now?

Mishra_1996_Cheetah_re-introduction_in_India.pdf

Misonne X.  Analyse zoogeographique des mammifères de l'Iran. 1959. Brussel, Institut Royal des sciences naturelles de Belgique.

The book provides a list of Iranian mammals. The cheetah occurred in Atrek area (north-east from Bandar Shah), and Belouchistan (at Bampur, Roud-i-Kaskin and Sargad) and might still exist in Khorossan area.

Ce livre fournit une liste des mammifères d'Iran. Le guépard était présent dans la région de l'Atrek (nord-est de Bandar Shah) et Belouchistan (à Bampur, Roud-i-Kaskin et Sargad) et devrait encore exister dans la région de Khorossan.

Misonne_1959_Mammals_of_Iran_-_Felidae.pdf

Mitchell A, Marker L.  US Troops find abused cheetah cubs.  2005.

This article deals with the rescue of two cheetah cubs in the village of Gode, Ethiopia, by U.S soldiers. These two cubs have been bought by a restaurant-keeper from poachers.

Cet article concerne le sauvetage de deux jeunes guépards orphelins dans le village de Gode en Ethiopie, par des soldats américains. Ces deux jeunes avaient été achetés à des braconniers par le responsable d'un restaurant.

Mitchell_2005_US_Troops_find_abused_cheetah_cubs_in_Ethiopia.pdf

Moll E. 1976. The cheetah kill and the cheetah killers. African Wildlife:12-13.

Kill of a yearling springbuck by a sibling of cheetahs. The male made the kill and kept his sister away from the prey until he has eaten his fill. Dealing with live wild animals and deals mainly possession, selling and buying of live cheetahs is prohibited. Nowhere in the Ordinance is it stated that the killing of cheetah is an offence. The Transvaal Department of Nature Conservation has now taken positive steps to rectify the position. Wherever possible, cheetah will now be captures in areas where they create problems and relocated in suitable nature reserves.

Moll_1976_The_Cheetah_Kill_and_the_cheetahs_killer.pdf

Moore JA. 1970. Some notes on the climatic adaptability of large cats in captivity. Int Zoo Yb 10:144.

No adverse effects were noted for the cheetah when moved outside although winter temperatures reached a low of 12°C. They proved perfectly adaptable and even seemed to enjoy the snow.

Moore_1970_Some_notes_on_the_climatic_adaptability_of_large_cats_in_captivit.pdf

Morrison-Scott_1951_Cheetah_in_Arabia.pdf

Morsbach D. 1984. The ecology, behaviour and movements of cheetah on farm areas of S.W.A/Namibia - annual report 52 p.

The study area is 120 km NE of Windhoek with Okahandja in the west and Steinhausen in the east. In 1984, 21 cheetahs were caught and 13 of them marked with radio-collars. 5 cheetahs were killed on farms, 4 because they had killed livestock and one as a hunting trophy. By regularly visiting the farmers, a good co-operation could be established. 44 cattle claves, 33 Boer goats and 11 sheep were killed by cheetahs. These kills occurred on 10 farms. Preliminary results on ranging behaviour, home range size and on reproduction and group size are presented.

Morsbach_1984_Annual_Report_-_Cheetahs_on_farm_areas_of_Namibia.pdf

Morsbach D.  The ecology, behaviour and movements of cheetah on the farm areas of S.W.A./Namibia - progress report. 1985.

Progress report of the cheetah study that was conducted from 1984-1986 in Namibia. Details on ranging behaviour, diet and depredation on livestock during the report period are presented.

Morsbach_1985_Progress_Report_-_Cheetahs_on_farm_areas_of_Namibia.pdf

Morsbach D.  The Behaviour, Ecology and Movements of Cheetah on the Farm Areas of SWA/Namibia.  1-30. 1986.

The document is the progress report of the research project on the behaviour, ecology and movements of the cheetah on farm areas in Namibia for the period between November 1985 to October 1986. Estimation of the number of cheetahs on farmlands, based on basic information on the species' movements and density, is between 2000 and 3000, remarkably less than the number of about 6000 that was estimated through questionnaires and personal communications. From this study it was found that the average loss of cattle due to cheetah predation is three to four calves per farm per year. The few farmers which actually did keep good written records of all calf births and mortalities, had almost always much less losses due to predation by cheetahs. Recommendations include the increase of the cheetah's economic value for farmers, the establishment of reservoir areas that must include a number of farms and where the farmers must agree that a calf loss of 3 to 4 calves a year is acceptable, and an intensive, fulltime study to make an accurate conclusion of the stock losses. Annexes figures of the movements of the studied cheetahs are given, as well as tables indicating their home range area estimations, stock losses on farms, and departmental permit records for the cheetah between 1980 to 1986.

Morsbach_1986_Cheetahs_on_farms_areas_of_Namibia.pdf

Morsbach D. 1986. The cheetah in S.W.A/Namibia (A short summary and preliminary report) 10 p.

95% of cheetahs in Namibia are found on private farmland. No information was available of any aspect of cheetah ecology on private farmland, all previous studies were done in reserves or other protected areas. Field work was started in February 1984 on 20 farms in one of the highest cheetah density and problem areas. During two years, 17 cheetahs were caught and marked with radio-collars. Field work was completed in August 1987. Homerange size was 800 km2 for males and 1500 km for females. The density was estimated to one cheetah per 50 km2. Diet was found to be mainly young calves of kudu, hartebeest and oryx. It was found that cheetah only took calves from birth to about 8 months, and on average only 3-4 calves per farm were taken by cheetahs. Males lived either solitarily or in groups of 2-5 males. Farmers in central and northern districts of the country view the cheetah as the major cause of livestock losses. The number of cheetahs being killed is increasing. The only possible way to ensure the future breeding population of cheetahs on farmland would be to raise the economic value of the animal for the farmer.

Morsbach_1986_The_cheetah_in_SWA_Namibia.pdf

Morsbach D. 1987. Cheetah in Namibia. Cat News:6, 25-26.

Namibia has one of the largest and healthiest wild cheetah populations. In 1974/75 estimates for population figures are reported between 1,500 and 6,000 individuals. Farmers view the cheetah as a major cause of stock losses and kill them in ever-increasing numbers. These killings are allowed, as long as the cheetah was a threat to humans or livestock. Cheetah kills have to be reported and the person responsible is allowed to retain the skin. The Directorate of Nature Conservation carried out an intensive research project on cheetah on private farmland from February 1984 to August 1986, to investigate population status, cheetah problem on farmland, cost to farmers of cheetah predation and to establish suitable control and conservation methods to ensure the future survival of cheetah on private farmland.

Morsbach_1987_Cheetah_in_Namibia_CatNews_6.pdf

Mortenson J. 1994. Cheetah in peril. Wildlife Safari Game Search 13.

Visiting Kruger National Park and the Umfolozi-Hluhluwe Game Reserve - the conservations and traveling I did with staff members allowed me to see the many problems they face to keep these small islands of wilderness afloat. Cheetah breeding centers hasn't been terrible successful in re-introducing cats back into the wild. The farmers view them as a predator on their wild and domestic hoofstock calves. With endangered species, we have international blanket rules such as CITES regulations. It is currently illegal to hunt cheetah throughout Africa.

Mortenson_1994_Cheetah_in_peril.pdf

Morton CC. 1995. Cheetahs on the spot. UC Davis Magazine.

During a decade studying cheetahs, Caro became increasingly alarmed over the vulnerability of this endangered species. It's not enough for biologists to observe, they need to conserve. Cheetahs have seemed particularly vulnerable to extinction for reasons of specialization and genetics (amazing uniformity of genes among individuals). It is necessary to get involved in reintroduction programs or ecological monitoring or enter the world of conservation politics, especially at a local level.

Morton_1995_Cheetahs_on_the_Spot.pdf

Mubalama Kakira,L. Monitoring law enforcement effort and illegal activity in selected protected areas: Implications for management and conservation, Democratic Republic of Congo. MSc Thesis, University of Ghent. 418 pp.

Poaching remains a sensitive and controversial issue, especially amidst a diversity of combined political upheaval and economic turmoil when biodiversity is being lost at an accelerated rate resulting in some of charismatic species becoming plummeted amidst the wave of illegal offtake caused by a number of factors acting in concert. Overall, defaunation and habitat encroachment viewed largely as a function of human action were the two major factors that caused contraction oflarge herbivores in both the Kahuzi-Biega and Virunga National Parks. These two show pieces of conservation areas are still grappling with ever-growing population growth in a region where conflict over ownership and control of land and its natural resources poses daunting impediments to community-based development making it more difficult to secure sustainable solutions. This research work seeks to shed light on illegal activity patterns and trends as well as law enforcementeffort implications using a wide range of GIS analysis applications with a focus on the hotspot analysis. Analysis carried out here typically answers four fairly key questions, (i) what is the illegal resource use? (ii) Where is the best illegal activity location? (iii) Who extracts  resources illegally? and (iv) Why does illegal resource use occur on recurrent basis? The thesis highlights practical issues which must be addressed to improve the effectiveness of conservation strategies.

Mubalama_2010_Monitoring_law_enforcement_in_Democratic_Republic_of_Congo.pdf

Mulder ten Kate N. 1976. Preparation for the nursery form a nest with two handtame cheetahs Apeldoorn, Netherlands: 8 p.

 Breeding of chaptive handtame cheetahs living near Apeldoorn with the family Nico Mulder and Kate, Netherlands. Preparation for the nursery form a nest with two handtame cheetahs and very detailed report about the cheetah's birth of 5 cubs and happenings and behaviour afterwards like first nippling, feeding of the mother cheetah, medication, stool and urine.

Mulder_ten_Kate_1976_Nursery_of_a_nest_with_two_handtame_cheetahs.pdf

Munson L. 1993. Diseases of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus): results of the Cheetah Council Pathology Survey, 1989-1992. Zoo Biology 12(1):105-24.

Knowledge of the diseases of cheetahs is essential to prevent and treat conditions that can modulate fertility and longevity. Toward this aim, a comprehensive pathology survey was conducted under a directive from the Cheetah Species Survival Plan. To date, 31 adult cheetahs and nine cubs from 16 zoological parks have been evaluated. Also, liver biopsies from 67 female cheetahs from 22 zoological parks were examined. Veno-occlusive disease (VOD) affected 82% of deceased cheetahs and 51% of live female cheetahs, and was the cause of death in nine cheetahs. Glomerulosclerosis and nephrosclerosis affected 84% and 39% of the population, respectively, and caused renal failure in eight cheetahs. The severity of VOD and glomerulosclerosis increased with age, and was not associated with infertility. Chronic gastritis was noted in 91% of the study population, and 95% of these cases also had spiral bacteria. Feline infectious peritonitis caused the death of two cheetahs. Male cheetahs had testicular degeneration, atrophy, and/or spermatogenic arrest, but these cheetahs also had severe systemic illness. Most females did not have reproductive tract lesions that would cause infertility, including those with parovarian cysts. Ovarian histology suggested that infertile cheetahs were not ovulating. Most cubs died from pneumonia or other systemic infections. The results of this study indicate that serious diseases are prevalent in the North American cheetahs, but these diseases do not appear to be the cause of infertility in the population. However, these diseases do limit the life span and well-being of cheetahs in captivity.

Munson_1993_Dieseases_of_captive_cheetah.pdf

Munson L, Marker L, Dubovi E, Spencer JA. 2004. Serosurvey of viral infections in free-ranging Namibian cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). J Wildl Dis 40(1):23-31.

Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in captivity have unusually high morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases, a trait that could be an outcome of population homogeneity or the immunomodulating effects of chronic stress. Free-ranging Namibian cheetahs share ancestry with captive cheetahs, but their susceptibility to infectious diseases has not been investigated. The largest remaining population of free-ranging cheetahs resides on Namibian farmlands, where they share habitat with domestic dogs and cats known to carry viruses that affect cheetah health. To assess the extent to which free-ranging cheetahs are exposed to feline and canine viruses, sera from 81 free-ranging cheetahs sampled between 1992 and 1998 were evaluated for antibodies against canine distemper virus (CDV), feline coronavirus (feline infectious peritonitis virus; FCoV/FIPV), feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV1), feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), and feline calicivirus (FCV) and for feline leukemia virus (FeLV) antigens. Antibodies against CDV, FCoV/FIPV, FHV1, FPV, and FCV were detected in 24, 29, 12, 48, and 65% of the free-ranging population, respectively, although no evidence of viral disease was present in any animal at the time of sample collection. Neither FIV antibodies nor FeLV antigens were present in any free-ranging cheetah tested. Temporal variation in FCoV/FIPV seroprevalence during the study period suggested that this virus is not endemic in the free-ranging population. Antibodies against CDV were detected in cheetahs of all ages sampled between 1995 and 1998, suggesting the occurrence of an epidemic in Namibia during the time when CDV swept through other parts of sub-Saharan Africa. This evidence in free-ranging Namibian cheetahs of exposure to viruses that cause severe disease in captive cheetahs should direct future guidelines for translocations, including quarantine of seropositive cheetahs and preventing contact between cheetahs and domestic pets.

Munson_et_al_2004_Viral_infections_in_Namibian_cheetahs.pdf

Muntifering JR, Dickman AJ, Perlow LM, Hruska T, Ryan PG, Marker LL, Jeo RM. 2006. Managing the matrix for large carnivores: a novel approach and perspective from cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus) habitat suitability modelling. Animal Conservation 9:103-12.

Effective management within the human-dominated matrix, outside of formally protected areas, is of paramount importance to wide-ranging carnivores. For instance, the largest extant population of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus currently persists on privately owned Namibian ranchlands, and provides an excellent case study to examine and design matrix conservation approaches. Although human caused mortality is likely the principal threat to this population, anecdotal evidence suggests that 'bush encroachment', the widespread conversion of mixed woodland and savannah habitats to dense, Acacia-dominated thickets, is another probable threat. A better understanding of cheetah habitat use, outside of protected areas, could be used to directly influence habitat management strategies and design local restoration and conflict mitigation efforts. To identify specific habitat characteristics associated with cheetah use, radio-telemetry locations were used to identify areas intensively visited by cheetahs on commercial Namibian farms. The habitat characteristics of these 'high-use' areas with adjacent 'low-use' areas were compared. A binary logistic regression model correctly categorized 92% of plot locations as high or low use, and suggested that cheetahs may be utilizing 'rewarding patches' with better sighting visibility and greater grass cover. The possible reasons for kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros, Namibian cheetahs' preferred prey, exhibiting significantly lower abundance in high-use areas are discussed. Using habitat characteristics to identify areas intensively utilized by cheetahs has important implications for guiding future habitat restoration and developing effective predator conflict mitigation efforts.

Muntifering_et_al_2006_Cheetah_habitat_modelling.pdf

Murray JD.  How the leopard gets its spots. Magazine article:80-87.

A single pattern-formation mechanism could underlie the wide variety of animal coat markings found in nature. Results from the mathematical model open lines of inquiry for the biologist. Mathematical model called a reaction-diffusion mechanism generates patterns that bear a striking resemblance to those found on certain animals. Comparison between patterns on the tail of the leopard, the jaguar and the cheetah.

Murray_-_How_The_Leopard_Gets_Its_Spots.pdf

Myers N.  Status of the leopard and cheetah in africa. Report.

Status of the leopard and cheetah in Africa. This paper presents findings form a two year survey. Africa is no longer the last great empty continent: the human population is expanding more rapidly than that of any other region on earth. The cheetah depends on specific biotopes which have more open areas - the same that will continue to suffer at the hands of increased livestock industry and subsistance agriculture. As a marginal predator which relies on certain types of prey, the cheetah often requires a much larger area to survive than the tiger or leopard.

Myers_-_Status_of_the_leopard_and_cheetah_in_Africa.pdf

Myers N. 1970. Is the Cheetah a loser. In:Herrick R, editor. The Web of Life. New York: Garret Press; p 160-163.

This speedy hunter faces formidable odds in its struggle to survive. The cheetah is choosy about its habitat and has to compete for every bite of food. The cheetah was never as numerous as the lion or the leopard in the best of times. A cheetah needs a much larger territory to support it than a leopard does - and the cheetah's habitat, the open grasslands, is rapidly shrinking because of agricultural growth.

Myers_1970_Is_the_Cheetah_a_Loser.pdf

Myers N. 1974. An evaluation of the status of the cheetah. AWLF News:11-14.

Various attributes of the cheetah's ecology and ethology not only limit its range, densities and numbers in Africa, but they likewise make it exceptionally sensitive to man's disruption of wild land habitats. As a nervous and cautious creature, the cheetah often disturbed by men's mere appearance on the landscape, much more so than other large predators. The best opportunity for cheetah's conservation seems at present to lie in some form of multiple-use pattern for conserving and exploiting rangeland resources.

Myers_1974_Evaluation_of_the_status_of_the_cheetah.pdf

Myers N.  The Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus in Africa - Report of a survey in Africa from the Sahara southwards. [4], 1-90. 1975. Morges, Switzerland, IUCN. IUCN Monographs.

For  the purpose of obtaining a working figure for cheetah numbers, the report attempts a biome-by-biome estimate. At best, however, this can provide only a rough approximation of totals. Subject to this qualification, it is calculated that in the whole region, the number may be slightly over 15'000, but of these two-thirds survive in savanna and subdesert zones south of 15°s. On the basis of virtually unanimous reports from the field, the number was appreciably greater, perhaps twice as large in 196'. Unless effective conservation measures can be applied, the cheetah could well again decline by half within another decade at most, and thereafter the decline will continue with increasingly critical consequences in face of human population pressures.

Myers_1975_Cheetah_in_Africa.pdf

Myers N. 1975. Cheetah statistics from Myers 1975. Report, 1 p.

Cheetah statistics from Myers 1975. Country by country summary and future trends of populations up tp 1980.

Myers_1975_Cheetah_Statistics_of_Myers_1975.pdf

Myers N. 1976 Jul 23. For the Leopard's Lovers, Good News. For the Cheetah's, Bad. New York Times;A21.

In this newspaper article of 1976, the cheetah is described to be in "poor shape" in Africa. Because of its ecological and behavioural characteristics, the cheetah is confined in the main to savanna grassland and only a few parks and reserves contain significant numbers.

Myers_1976_Leopard_and_Cheetah_status.pdf

Myers N. 1984. Conservation of Africa's cats: problems and opportunities. In Miller SD, Everett DD, editors. Cats of the World: Biology, Conservation, and Management. Washington, D.C.. National Wildlife Federation; pp. 437-446.

Africa's large cats, lion, leopard and cheetah, are losing numbers at accelerating rates. The attrition is due to 3 inter-related factors, i.e. loss of prey, loss of living space, and conflict with livestock raisers. The cheetah now features by far the lowest numbers (as has always been the  case), and its relict populations continue to decline at ever-faster rates. The lion is in the process of being eliminated from many wild lands outside parks and reserves and is quickly becoming reduced to isolated populations. The leopard fares best, though its total stocks and overall range have declined drastically and unnecessarily for the most part. Small cats run into far less conflict with human activities, and they tend to be more covert and nocturnal. In certain circumstances the may even benefit from man's presence. In light of these circumstances, we need to develop a realistic and systematic strategy for conservation of Africa's large cats. This will include a methodical appraisal of priorities i.e. conservation initiatives that are likely to yield the best return per conservation dollar invested; and increased commercialization of the wildlife resources represented by the 3 large cats, provided that expanded exploitation through sport hunting can be practiced in sustainable fashion and best serves the needs of conservation.

Myers_1984_Conservation_of_Africas_cats.pdf

Myers N. 1986. Was nun gefleckte Sphinx - what now spotted sphinx. Book chapter.  Das Tier:6-9.

Observation of a mother cheetah with five approximately one month old cubs. After one month the mother started teaching the cubs to hunt. The cheetah faces many problems. Losses its kill to lions and hyenas, part of its range is drying out and other parts are becoming heavily brushed. Nearly 95% of its former habitat is no longer available. In spite of some of the steps that have been taken in regards to nature preservation, the outlook for the cheetah remains bleak. Trade and conflict with human are other problems for the cheetah. The spotted Sphinx, the beautiful cheetah has almost no future.

Myers_1986_What_now_spotted_sphinx_(engl).pdf

Myers_1986_What_now_spotted_sphinx_(german).pdf