Eaton RL.  The evolution of sociality in the felidae. Report 49 pp.

A report about the evolution of sociality in the felidae and other carnivora. Five of the seven families of Canivora have evolved sociality. Canidae, Hyenidae and Felidae are discussed. Four hypotheses that affect sociality are discussed: H1: Defense against predation, H2: Nature of food resources favors grouping, H3:Intraspecific competition for critically limiting resources, H4: Interspecific competition for critically limiting resources (or for the cheetah: grouping is disfavored by interspecific competition).
However efficient grouping for cheetahs is for capturing prey, in areas with abundant dominants the cost of theft may be too great for grouping to be favored. The conspicuousness of several adults should increase the frequency of theft by dominants. With few or no dominants, hunting efficiency should be sufficient to favor grouping (H2). Thus, in some areas where dominant abound, males must benefit from grouping because of intrasexual competition (H3), the advantages of which are probably sufficient to override the costs of interspecific competition (H4). Grouping by females could be favored because it reduces predation on infants by numerous, smaller predators (H1), by males (H3), and/or because foraging efficiency is enhanced. Intrasexual competition (H3), predation by species subordinate to adults (H1) and increased efficiency of foraging (H2) could account for increased grouping. All of these benefits would be enhanced by removal of interspecific competition from dominants. For example, with removal of the cheetah's dominants, numerous subordinate species should be favored and have higher densities. Last chapter is a reconstruction of social evolution.

Eaton_-_The_Evolution_of_Sociality_in_the_Felidae.pdf

Eaton RL. 1969. Beautiful and efficient predator: the cheetah. Africana 3, 4 pp.

For this definitive study Randall Eaton an American biologist of the University of Washington, USA, spent many months observing in Nairobi National Park. In this article he writes about the territoriality, social behaviour and hunting behaviour of the cheetah.

Eaton_1969_Beautiful_and_Efficient_Predator.pdf

Eaton RL. 1969. The cheetahs survival endangered by man. Defenders of Wildlife, January-February-March, 57-60.

Eaton felt it important to attempt to acquire knowledge that might prove helpful as an aid to  preserving the cheetah, to study and to acquire insights into the reasons for the cheetah's decline. The effects of man as a contributor to mortality far beyond natural losses are manifested in several ways. Trapping, poisoning, hunting, poaching and agriculture, including defense of stock, habitation and loss of prey species, are all important. The demand for live cheetahs for hunting and as pets is also an important source of losses. Recommandations for preserving cheetahs are given.

Eaton_1969_The_Cheetahs_Survival_Endangered_by_Man.pdf

Eaton RL. 1969. The social life of the cheetah. Animals, 172-175.

Despite man's long association with the cheetah - considered by naturalists to be a cat-dog hybrid - relatively little has been known of the ecology and behaviour of the elegant feline. Eaton's observations in Kenya during 1966 and 1967, based on groups in the Nairobi National Park and the Masai-Amboseli Game Reserve, give us first hand information on the social orders, territorial assertions and breeding of the cheetah.

Eaton_1969_The_Social_Life_of_the_Cheetah.pdf

Eaton RL. 1970. Notes on the reproductive biology of the cheetah. International Zoo Yearbook 10, 86-90

This paper summarizes the information on cheetah reproduction biology in the literature and data from a field study of cheetah ecology in Nairobi National Park and Masai Amboseli Game Reserve, Kenya. Data on the reproductive biology of endangered species such as the cheetah is important as an aid to breeding them in captivity.
Births appear to be seasonal relating to game concentrations and rainy seasons. Factors affecting hunting success that are related to seasonal changes, other than game concentrations, are vegetation growth and colour. Breeding success would be highest in those females that gave birth during the wet season so that food would be most easily available when the cubs required it.

Eaton_1970_Notes_on_the_reproductive_biology_of_the_cheetah.pdf

Eaton RL. 1970. The predatory sequence, with emphasis an killing behavior and its ontogeny, in the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus Schreber). Z Tierpsychologie 27, 492-504.

There appears to have been natural selection for anatomical adaptations permitting efficient predation in the cheetah, which have led to corresponding behavioural adaptations away from the typical predatory sequence and killing behaviour of other Felidae. Strangulation as a means of killing prey is a maturation of an innate tendency. Stalking and chasing of prey are relatively fixed behaviour patterns but seizing and killing of the prey develops properly only with experience and is modifiable. The training given to cubs by their mother is critical for the eventual development of the entire predatory sequence from its innate components. Training probably allows the cubs to modify more effectively the predatory and killing behaviour best suited for the prey of the specific area in which they live.

Eaton_1970_The_predatory_sequence_in_the_cheetah.pdf

Eaton RL. 1970. Hunting behavior of the cheetah. J Wildl Manage 34, 56-67.

The predatory-prey aspects of four cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) groups were studied in Nairobi National Park, Kenya, from October, 1966, through February, 1967. Hunt: kill ratios were applied to direct observation data of 157 hunts and 30 kills. Hunting success apparently varied with habitat-type prey species, sex and age-classes of prey, herd size, cheetah group size, and the cheetah's or group's hunting experience. Cheetah kills appeared to be other than a random sample of prey populations. There was differential selection in prey of females and juveniles.

Eaton_1970_Hunting_behavior_of_the_cheetah.pdf

Eaton RL. 1970. Group interactions, spacing and territoriality in cheetahs. Z Tierpsychologie 27, 481-491.

A study of cheetah group interactions reveals a spacing technique that works on a "time-plan". Marking appears to act as a means of defending any time. In this way, groups space themselves out, but this spacing system is not necessarily a population regulatory mechanism. The relationship between group size and mortality, and predation on cheetah as the factor most likely limiting cheetah numbers are discussed. A definition of territoriality is offered, and it is advocated that the "time-plan" of spacing is a special case of territoriality.

Eaton_1970_Group_interactions_spacing_and_territoriality_in_cheetahs.pdf

Eaton RL. 1971. Cheetah. National Parks 45, 18-22.

The cheetah, fastest of the world's land animals, is racing toward extinction. One or another of man's desires have harassed many species into oblivion, but the cheetah is getting what seems to be special extermination treatment. It is being trapped for its value alive, shot for the value of its fur, poisoned because it supposedly kills livestock, occasionally hunted for "sport", made homeless through the loss of its habitat, and starved through the loss of its prey's habitat.

Eaton_1971_Cheetah.pdf

Eaton RL. 1971. Fastest of the world's land animals is racing towards extinction. African Wild Life 25, 123-128.

A comprehensive article about the cheetahs history, hunting strategy, social behaviour, sex ratio who is about one male to two females in the Serengeti, prey preferences, territorial behavior, breeding behaviour, about breeding programs in captivity and their mating behaviour that is quite elaborate. In Asia, Cheetah are already endangered. And for South Africa it would be a good thing if the commercial market in live cheetahs were regulated and if the animal could receive more protection.

Eaton_1971_Fastest_of_the_Worlds_Land_Animals.pdf

Eaton RL. 1972. An experimental study of predatory and feeding behavior in the cheetah. Z Tierpsychologie 31, 270-280.

Experienced cheetah continue to hunt inaccessible prey at a near constant level, i.e. hunting motivation does not become habituated due to continuous visual exposure to prey. Mammalian carcasses elicit feeding, even if the animals were satiated to cut-up meat. Running away of the prey is unquestionably a releaser for attack. Cheetahs employ inter-specific threatening behavior against competing humans and prey that does not run, in the latter context threatening is effective in inducing the prey's flight. The cheetah does not knock the prey off its feet as earlier believed, but rather employs pulling with the dew claw to cause the prey to lose balance and fall down. The tail is unquestionably important as a rudder to change direction while coursing prey. The killing bite is released by the stimulus of a carcass.

Eaton_1972_An_Experimental_Study_of_Predatory_and_Feeding_Behavior_in_the_Cheetah.pdf

Eaton RL. 1974. Why, where and how. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp 1-15.

The book proposes large information about general characteristics, distribution, ecology and behaviour of the cheetah, as well as management and conservation solutions. One purpose of the field study was to make careful observations of cheetahs stalking and choosing their prey. In this way, it was hoped to determine the factors the cheetah uses as an indicator of an animal to be pursued, and whether the animals killed by the cheetah are other than a random sample of the total population. Aside from specific, ecological objectives, the fact that a species such as the cheetah is endangered but little-known is justification enough for studying its life in the wild and in the captivity.  The field work began on October 15, 1966, and was continued through February, 1967. Most of the data are from Nairobi National Park and Masai Amboseli Game Reserve. Airplane flights were taken over the park to census cheetahs, but this system was less effective than ground observations. Cheetahs were observed mostly from a vehicle since they showed little fear of it, and followed around the clock from 5:30 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. Data were collected from many sources including park records, individuals' sightings and descriptions, and photographs of cheetahs, and of course my own observations. Notation was made of wind direction and velocity, percentage of cloud cover, precipitation, and temperature. A parabola was also used with the microphone to record cheetah vocalisations. Vocalisations were played back to captive cheetahs in the World Wildlife Foundation Animal Orphanage at Nairobi Park to observe their reactions. Photography was initially important in identifying cheetahs and for the recording of behaviour for further analysis. A 200-ft field survey tape was used either to measure directly certain distances or to check estimates. Many of the same observational techniques were employed in the captive phase of the research.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_1_why_where_and_how.pdf

Eaton RL. 1974. The cheetah. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp. 16-40.

A detailed description on taxonomy, distribution, morphology and appearance, habitat use and demography is presented, including a map with cheetah sightings throughout East Africa made during 1955-1964, and a distribution map for Kenya. The cheetah population of Nairobi National Park was estimated at 15 resident animals, 20 different individuals were observed. In the Amboseli Game Reserve 8 cheetahs were counted. In 1965, the total estimate for East Africa was 1932-1950 different animals. This figure might be too low.
Inter birth intervals were 17-19 months, so females came into estrus when their cubs were 12-14 months old. Gestation period was 90-95 days. The litter size was at least four cubs. The primary birth season was from March to June. In the Serengeti, births were observed from January to August. Seasons of birth may vary with different ecological conditions. Data on six litters indicate that predation is an important mortality factor of cheetah cubs.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_2_The_cheetah.pdf

Eaton RL. 1974. Ecology. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp 41-87.

The sex ratio among adults in the two observed areas Nairobi National Park and Amboslie Game Reserve was about 2:1, in the litters 1:1.
In Nairobi National Park, impala, Grant's gazelle, kongoni and waterbuck occur most frequently in the cheetah's diet. 12 of 30 aged kills were adults, 18 juveniles. Details on group size while hunting and of the herd size of the hunted species, prey selection, the cheetah's energy budget and the interaction of cheetahs with other species are presented.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_3_Ecology.pdf

Eaton RL. 1974. Predatory and Killing Behavior. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp. 129-145.

Detailed description of hunting and killing behavior. Cheetahs seldom crouches like most cats. It walks along slowly, looking for game. The "crouch" aspect of predatory behavior in the cheetah is modified to a state of alertness that requires holding the head high and remaining motionless enough to maintain visual contact with the prey. The cheetah knocks over the fleeing prey. The ontogeny of killing behavior was observed with a litter of four cubs and the mother.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_7_Predation.pdf

Eaton RL. 1974. Social Organization and Spacing. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp. 88-106.

The majority of the data on social organization are observations of 15 cheetah of four special groups in Nairobi National Park. Members of one cheetah group did not socialize with individuals of other groups except for mating. Details on scent marking and defecation and individual's response to it are presented.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_4_Social_organization.pdf

Eaton RL. 1974. Courtship and Mating Behavior. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp. 107-118.

Courtship behaviour has rarely been seen in the wild. Increasingly successful breeding programs in wildlife parks allow to learn more about courtship and mating requirements. Observations on social behaviour of cheetahs mainly from Lion Country Safari are presented, from grooming to courtship and mating are presented.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_5_Courtship_and_mating.pfd

Eaton RL. 1974. Aggressive Behavior. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp. 119-128.

In all of the African literature on wildlife only two observations of fighting between cheetahs have been reported. In captivity, it was observed that cheetahs are aggressive in a number of situations and their fighting behaviour is quite stereotyped and complex. Situations of fighting over food are described.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_6_Aggressive_behaviour.pdf

Eaton RL. 1974. Management and behavior of wild cheetahs in captivity. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp. 147-155.

The integration of wild cheetahs from Namibia into captivity at Lion Country Safari is observed and commented. Cage size and structure, group composition, food quality and quantity as well as the method of food distribution are discussed.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_8_Captive_breeding.pdf

Eaton RL. 1974. Conservation. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp 156-165.

The demand for wild-caught adult cheetahs is a drain on populations in several ways. For every cheetah trapped, tamed and trained successfully, several die in the process. If cheetahs were good breeders, they would be more abundant today. But cheetahs are not good breeders in captivity. Poachers in Kenya said that live cheetahs are worth great sums of money in Ethiopia, which, according to them, is the center for exporting black-market cheetahs to other countries. Somalia has been equally if not more important in the illegal spotted cat trade. Additionally to the draining of the populations by live captures, a major man-cheetah "agricultural" conflict is brewing. The replacement of livestock, which was at least partially guarded, with game ranches will bring new problems. Immediately needed actions to conserve cheetahs are presented.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_9_Conservation.pdf

Eaton RL. 1974. Bibliography. In The Cheetah - The biology, ecology, and behavior of an endangered species.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. Pp. 166-170.

Eaton_1974_The_cheetah_10_Bibliography.pdf

Eaton RL. 1976. A possible case of mimicry in larger mammals. Evolution 30, 853-856.

Cheetah infants appear to mimic the honey badger or ratel (Mellivora capensis). The coloration of both ratels and cheetah kittens is the opposite of counter-shading, which is typical of the vast majority of mammals. While counter-shading disrupts three dimensional vision, patterns of light above, dark below actually increase conspicuousness. The ratel exemplifies warning coloration; the cheetah kitten appears to mimic the ratel. For mimicry of ratels by cheetahs to evolve it must be true that larger predators are less inclined to approach and attack a ratel than another small animals of comparable size, cheetah kitten must be preyed upon primarily by visual predators, and cheetah kittens must be situated in places where predators are likely to see them far enough away to make errors in identification.

Eaton_1976_A_Possible_Case_of_Mimicry_in_Larger_Mammals.pdf

Eaton RL. 1977. Breeding Biology and Propagation of the Ocelot. Zool Garten 47, 9-23.

The endangered status of the ocelot both as a native foreign species, the restraints imposed by government on importation, and the low recruitment rate from captive breeding in zoos, warrant a review of breeding biology and propagation. Referred to chapter "Estrous Cycle and Birth Interval", in both cheetahs and ocelot if they lost their litters after the average estrous cycle, then 2 estrous periods normal occurred between births. If they did not raise litters for more than 6 weeks, or lost them shortly after birth, an average of about 4 estrous periods occurred between births.

Eaton_1977_Breeding_Biology_and_Propagation_of_the_Ocelot.pdf

This paper analyses purring in a cheetah and a domestic cat from an acoustic point of view. The results are discussed in the light of previously published studies.

Eklund_et_al_2010_Analysis_of_purring_in_cheetah_and_domestic_cat.pdf

Ellerman JR, Morrison-Scott TCS. 1966. Cheetah. In Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946. Trustees of the British Museum of Natural History, London. Pp. 320-321.

The approximate distribution of the cheetah is given in this article and the old taxonomy of the subspecies Acinonyx jubatus jubatus and A.j.venaticus.

La distribution approximative du guépard est présentée dans cet article ainsi que l'ancienne taxonomie des sous espèces Acinonyx jubatus jubatus et A.j.venaticus.

Ellerman_&_Morrison-Scott_1966_The_cheetah.pdf

Eltringham SK, Morley RJ, Kingdon J, Coe MJ, McWilliam NC. 1999. Checklist: Mammals of Mkomazi. In Coe MJ, McWilliam NC, Stone GN, Packer MJ (eds). Mkomazi: The ecology, biodiversity and conservation of a Tanzanian savanna. RGS-IBG, London. Pp. 505-510.

A summary list of the mammals of Mkomazi, Tanzania. Field records were collected by the Mkomazi Ecological Research Programme in 1992-96. The following six cat species are listed as occurring in Mkomazi: Cheetah, caracal, wild cat, leopard, serval, lion.

Eltringham_et_al_1999_Mammals_of_Mkomazi_Tanzania.pdf

Emanoil M. 1994. Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. In Emanoil M (ed). Encyclopedia of endangered species. Detroit: IUCN / Gale Research Inc. Pp. 191-192.

5000 to 12000 cheetahs are estimated to live in Africa south of the Sahara, and 200 in Iran and possibly in northwest Afghanistan. The loss of habitat is assessed as the most serious threat for this species.

Emanoil_1994_Cheetah_-_Endangered_Species.pdf

Encke W. 1960. Birth and rearing of cheethas at Krefield Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook, Volume 2, 85-86.

The article from the international Zoo Yearbook describes birth and rearing of a litter of cheetahs at Krefield Zoo. The cubs had to be removed by the mother who killed two of her four cubs after birth. The babies were hand-reared and given to a foster-mother, a domestic cat with a six-day-old family. The two cheetahs are at time of writing with an age of about 3 months in the best of health.

Encke_1960_Birth_and_Rearing_of_Cheetahs_at_Krefield_Zoo.pdf

Endangered Wildlife Trust. 1974. The Cheetah Appeal. Wildlife Survival 1, 4 pp.

Different issues about the cheetah in response to a national wide appeal to save the cheetah. Cheetah shooting has been outlawed, but the situation is already very difficult. Money is collected in different ways to support research.

Endangered_Wildlife_Trust_1974_The_Cheetah_Appeal.pdf

Estes RD. 1991. Cats - Family Felidae. In Behaviour Guide to African Mammals. University of California Press. Pp 349-382.

A description of common traits, distribution, ecology, and predation, social, sexual and parent/offspring behaviour of all African Felidae, including cheetahs.

Estes_1991_Felidae.pdf

Etheridge MA. 1995. Developing effective cheetah conservation and recovery plans: Namibia as a case study. 19 pp.

The challenge that wildlife managers face in effectively conserving cheetahs is two-fold. In recent years, much focus has been given to improving successful captive breeding of cheetahs, while little emphasis has been given to the re-introduction of cheetahs. Our efforts to breed cheetahs in captivity have been only partially successful. Still, the captive cheetah population is not yet self-sustaining and is much less successful than breeding programs for Indian lions or Siberian tigers. Moreover, in order to realize our goal of cheetah survival and recovery in the wild, we must ensure that captive-bred cheetahs can be successfully re-introduced and that adequate habitat exists for this purpose. Thus, our land management philosophy must evolve from that of a "sanctuary" approach to one which investigates opportunities for cooperative multiple-use land management. Namibia, with perhaps the world's only viable cheetah population, appears to offer the greatest potential for the cheetah's conservation.

Etheridge_1995_Effective_cheetah_conservation_and_recovery_plans_in_Namibia.pdf

Evermann JF, Roelke ME, Briggs MB. 1986. Feline coronavirus infections of cheetahs. Feline Practice 16, 21-28.

Clinical and diagnostic features of the 1982-83 epizootic of Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) and the effects on the cheetah population of Wildlife Safari in Oregon are presented in tabular format. Test producers and results are discussed, and photographs of affected cheetahs are included. The results of serologic testing of the survivors of the epizootic, as well as testing of new additions to the colony, were presented in a companion article.

Evermann_et_al_1986_Feline_coronavirus_infections_of_cheetahs.pdf

Evermann JF, McKeirnan AJ, Ott RL. 1991. Perspectives on the Epizoology of Feline Enteric Coronavirus and the Pathogenesis of Feline Infectious Peritonitis. Veterinary Microbiology 28, 215-244.

This review presents some current thoughts regarding teh epizootiology of the feline coronaviruses; feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) and feline coronavirus (FEVC), with primary emphasis on the pathogenesis of these viruses in nature. Although the mechanism(s) whereby FIPV causes disease are still incompletely understood, there have been significant contributions to the literature over the past decade which provide a framework upon which plausible explanations can be postulated. Two concepts are presented which attempt to clarify the pathogenesis of FIPV and at the same time may serve as an impetus for further research. The first involves the hypothesis, originally promulgated by Pedersen in 19891, that FIPV is derived from FECV during virus replication in the gastrointestinal tract. The second involves a unique mechanism of the mucosal immune system referred to as oral tolerance, which under normal conditions promotes the production of secretory immunity and suppresses the production of systematic immunity. In the case of FIPV infection, we propose that oral tolerance is important in the control of the virus at the gastrointestinal tract level. Once oral tolerance is disrupted, FIPV is capable of systemic spread resulting in immune-mediated vasculitis and death. Thus, it may be that clinical forms of FIP are due to a combination of two events, the first being the generation of FIPV from FECV, and the second being the capacity of FIPV to circumvent oral tolerance.

Evermann_et_al_1991_Perspectives_on_the_Epizootiology_of_FEV_and_the_Pathogenesis_of_FIP.pdf

Evermann JF, Laurenson MK, McKeirnan AJ, Caro TM. 1993. Infectious Disease Surveillance in Captive and Free-Living Cheetahs: An Integral Part of the Species Survival Plan. Zoo Biology 12, 125-133.

During the formulative stages of developing the Species Survival Plan (SSP) for the cheetah, the impact of infectious disease upon its survival in captivity was of prime consideration, together with genetics, nutrition, physiology, and behaviour. This paper summarizes the results of an infectious disease surveillance program, initially designed to monitor the infectious agent associated with clinically normal and clinically ill cheetahs in captivity, but subsequently supplemented with data from free-living cheetahs. The focus was on two viral infections, feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) and feline rhinotracheitis virus. Results indicated that between 1989 and 1991, there was a n increase in the seroprevalence (number antibody-positive animals) of cheetahs to feline coronavirus from 41% to 64% in captivity. During this same time period, there were only two documented cases of FIP in cheetahs in the United States. The results suggest that feline coronavirus (feline enteric coronavirus-feline infectious peritonitis group) or a closely related coronavirus of cheetah is becoming endemic in the captive cheetah population. Further serologic results from 39 free-living cheetahs demonstrated that there was a high seroprevalence (61%) to feline coronavirus, although serum antibody titers were considerably lower than those encountered in captive cheetahs. The observation of a high percentage of free-living cheetahs, which were seropositive to feline herpesvirus (44%), was unexpected, since it has been generally regarded that this infection is primarily associated with cheetahs in captivity.

Evermann_et_al_1993_Cheetah_infectious_disease_surveillance.pdf