Dalerum F, Somers MJ, Kunkel KE and Cameron EZ. 2008. The potential for large carnivores to act as biodiversity surrogates in southern Africa. Biodiversity and Conservation 17, 2939-2949.

Biodiversity in southern Africa is globally extraordinary but threatened by human activities. Although there are considerable biodiversity conservation initiatives within the region, no one has yet assessed the potential use of large carnivores in such actions. Surrogate approaches have often been suggested as one such way of capitalizing on large carnivores. Here we review the suitability of the large carnivore guild (i.e., brown hyaena Hyaena hyaena, spotted hyaena Crocuta crocutta, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, leopard Panthera pardus, lion Panthea leo and African wild dog Lycaon pictus) to act as surrogate species for biodiversity conservation in southern Africa. We suggest that the guild must be complete for the large carnivores to fully provide their role as ecological keystones. The potential for large carnivores to act as umbrella and indicator species seems limited. However, self-sustaining populations of large carnivores may be useful indicators of unfragmented landscapes. Moreover, diversity within the large carnivore guild may reflect overall biodiversity. Although the global appeal of the large African carnivores makes them important international flagships, we stress that international conservation funding must be linked to local communities for them to be important also locally. In summary, we suggest that the flagship value of these large carnivores should be used to promote biodiversity conservation in the region, and that the suggested relationship between large carnivore diversity and overall biodiversity is empirically tested. Finally we suggest that direct conservation activities should focus on enhancing the keystone values of large carnivores through complete guild conservation and restoration.

Dalerum_et_al_2008_Large_carnivores_as_biodiversity_surrogates_in_southern_Africa.pdf

Darehshuri BF. 1978. Threatened cats of Asia. Wildlife (London) 20, 396-399.

Dareshshuri_1978_Threatened_Cats_Of_Asia.pdf

Davidson B.  Wildlife Society cheetah status survey. Magazine Article, 1 p.

Davidson_-_Wildlife_society_cheetahs_status_survey.pdf

Davidson BC, Cantrill RC, Varaday D. 1986. The reversal of essential fatty acid deficiency symptoms in the cheetah. South African Journal of Zoology 21, 161-164.

Two members of the Order Carnivora (the lion and the domestic cat) are known to be 6-desaturase deficient. Two anoestrous 8-year-old female cheetahs exhibiting symptoms consistent with essential fatty acid (EFA) deficiency were treated with encapsulated natural oils as supplement to their normal meat diet. The condition of both animals improved markedly, they came into full oestrus, mated, became pregnant, and have since produced healthy litters of cubs. This may be the first indication of a possible requirement for 6-desaturase reaction products in this species.

Davidson_et_al_1986_Reversal_of_essential_fatty_acid_deficiency_symptoms_in_the_cheetah.pdf

Davidson BC, Morsbach D, Cantrill RC. 1986. The fatty acid composition of the liver and brain of southern African cheetahs. Prog Lipid Res 25, 97-99.

To date, no information is available on the fatty acid composition of cheetah liver and brain, nor have any comparisons been made between captive-fed and wild cheetah. It has been shown that at least two species of the Carnivora (the lion - Panthera leo and the domestic cat - Felis cattus) lack the enzyme 6-desaturase and thus, the ability to further desaturate these two fatty acids to produce their metabolically important derivatives. However, the polyenoics produced are required by both species. In order to satisfy the requirement for these fatty acids, other animals must be consumed, hence these animals are true obligate carnivores. The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) exhibits many adaptive differences from both the above species, and many show other differences from the rest of the Felinae other than the obvious anatomical ones. In this study, the livers and brains of 2 adult male cheetahs were obtained after the animals had been culled in SWA/Namibia.

Davidson_1986_Fatty_acid_composition_in_African_cheetahs.pdf

de Smet K. 1993. Cheetahs teetered on brink of the ice age. Newspaper, 29 May 1993.

The cheetah narrowly escaped extinction at the end of the latest ice age, according to genetic analysis. At this time, between 10 000 and 12 000 years ago, about 75 per cent of all large mammals, including mammoths, cave bears and sable tigers, died out.

de_Smet_1993_Cheetahs_teetered_on_brink_of_ice_age.pdf

de Smet K. 2003. Cheetah in and around Hoggar National Park in Central Sahara (Algeria). Cat News 38, 22-24.

According the studies conducted in the late' 80s, in 2000 and in 2003, the cheetah is largely widespread in the Hoggar Mountains (Algeria) and its surroundings. Their numbers have probably risen since 2000. The potential preys of the cheetah are abundant. However, the cheetah is often killed by the Tuaregs despite their protection status. Cheetahs are reported to move on constantly from one valley to another, but have a territorial behaviour. The absence of competitors allows cheetah to hunt its preys without facing their robbery. The situation may be good in the Tassili Mountains too.

D'après les études menées à la fin des années 80, en 2000 et en 2003 le guépard est largement répandu dans les montagnes du Hoggar (Algérie) et ses environs. Leur nombre a probablement augmenté depuis 2000. Les proies potentielles du guépard sont abondantes. Cependant, malgré son statut d'espèce protégée, le guépard est souvent tué par les Touaregs. D'après les observations, les guépards se déplacent constamment d'une vallée à l'autre, mais gardent un comportement territorial. L'absence de compétiteurs permet au guépard de chasser ses proies sans avoir à faire face à leur vol. La situation doit également être bonne dans les montagnes du Tassili.

de_Smet_2003_Cheetahs_in_the_Hoggar_National_Park.pdf

de Waal HO. 2004. Bibliography of the larger African predators and related topics on their habitat and prey species Bloemfontein South Africa. 133 pp.

An extended bibliography of the larger African predators with 34 articles concerning cheetahs.

de_Waal_2004_Bibliography_of_the_larger_African_predators.pdf

Dekeyser PL. 1950. Guepard: Contribution a l'étude de l'Aïr (Mission L. Chopard et A. Villiers).
Memoires de l'IFAN 10, 402

Dekeyser provides a checklist of mammals of Aïr (Niger) from zoological samples collected during several scientific field surveys. A specimen of cheetah has been collected near Aourarene, north west of the Baguezans mountains.

Dans ce rapport, Dekeyser fournit une liste des mammifères de l'Aïr (Niger) réalisée à partir d'échantillons zoologiques collectés au cours de plusieurs missions scientifiques. Un spécimen de guépard a été collecté près de Aourarene, au nord ouest de la montagne de Baguezans.

Dekeyser_1950_Contribution_to_the_knowledge_of_the_Air_Niger.pdf

Dekeyser PL. 1955. Le guepard. In Dekeyser PL (ed). Les mammiferes de l'Afrique noire française. IFAN, Dakar. Pp. 287-288.

The author refers to the work published by Bigourdan et Prunier (1937) to report that cheetahs mainly range in the Sahelo-saharian area (north to 13° North), but might be found in the wooded soudanese area south from this latitude.

L'auteur se réfère au travail publié par Bigourdan et Prunier (1937; Ref ID:38) pour rapporter que les guépards sont principalement répartis dans la région sahélo-saharienne (nord du 13° de latitude nord), mais devraient aussi se trouver dans les régions boisées soudaniennes au sud de cette latitude.

Dekeyser_1955_Mammals_of_Black_Africa_-_The_cheetah.pdf

Dekeyser PL, Villiers A. 1956. Carnivores: Notations écologiques et biogéographiques sur la faune de l'Adrar.
Memoires de l'IFAN 44, 11-13.

Dekeyser provides a checklist of mammals of Adrar (Mauritania) from zoological samples collected during several scientific missions. A specimen of cheetah collected (no details provided) demonstrated the species occurrence in Adrar.  

Dekeyser_&_Villiers_1956_The_fauna_of_Adrar_Mauritania.pdf

della Pieta C. 1995. Cacciatore fragile - Animali a reschio: Il ghepardo. Airone 171, 42-53.

A description of the particular social organization of the cheetah, its poor genetic variability, its high specialized techniques for predation, its vulnerability to predators and scavengers, and of its ancient association with human activities.

della_Pieta_1995_Cacciatore_fragile.pdf

Denis-Huot M, Denis-Huot C. 1992. A caccia con Paka - Hunting with Paka.  Airone 133, 4 pp.

A reporters crew followed a mother cheetah (Paka), and her offspring in the first three months of their live reporting the difficulties that she supported and the threats to the cubs' survival. Pavians seeking for food, herds of buffalos passing on the hiding place, the exhausting search for food and most of all lions and hyenas, which are responsible of the death of 70% of the cubs under 3 months of life.

Denis-Huot_1992_A_Caccia_con_Paka.pdf

Dharmakumarsinhji SRS. 1992. Cheetah Hunting.
In Kumari of Gondal MK (ed). Reminiscences of Indian Wildlife. The Nature Conservation Bureau Ltd. Newbury, Berkshire, UK.

Cheetah hunting stories from India.

Dharmakumarsinhji_1992_Cheetah_hunting.pdf

Dickman AJ. 2005. An assessment of pastoralist attitudes and wildlife conflict Rungwa in the Rungwa-Ruaha region, Tanzania, with particular reference to large carnivores. MSc Thesis University of Oxford. 95 pp.

Human-wildlife conflict is an issue of pressing conservation concern, particularly when it involves threatened species, and accurately identifying the causes of such conflict is fundamental to developing effective resolution strategies. This study investigated attitudes of Maasai and Barabaig pastoralists towards wildlife in central Tanzania, with particular emphasis on five focal carnivore species. Pastoralists reported significant problems with wild animals, particularly carnivores, and results suggested that low levels of retaliatory killing were predominantly due to circumstantial constraints rather than innate tolerance. Number of stock owned and proportion of losses attributed to predators were the most important determinants of conflict examined, with some inter-tribal variation in tolerance. Successful conflict mitigation will depend upon reducing depredation through improved husbandry and improving the cost-benefit ratio of wildlife presence, thereby increasing pastoralist wealth and providing direct, relevant benefits from conservation. Implementing effective conflict resolution schemes should have significant benefits for both human and wildlife populations.

Dickman_2005_Pastoralist_attitudes_towards_large_carnivores_in_Tanzania.pdf

Dierenfeld ES. 1993. Nutrition of captive cheetahs: food composition and blood parameters. Zoo Biology 12, 143-152.

Diet and nutrition of cheetahs was evaluated through survey, in conjunction with chemical analysis of feed and plasma samples, as pan of a multidisciplinary effort to investigate underlying causes of low reproductive success in North American captive cheetah populations. Cheetahs consumed an average of 1.32  0.4 kg of food daily, containing approximately 1.800 kcal, and maintained an average body mass of 36.7  1.0 kg (n = 34). A commercially prepared horsemeat-based mixture comprised [he dietary staple in 10 of 13 zoos responding to the survey, with additional whole or carcass portions offered 1-2 days per week to maintain variety and provide periodontal stimulation. Seven of 13 respondents fasted animals I day/week: five maintained no fast days. The primary meat product (n = 14 samples) contained: 58% crude protein. 28% crude far. 7% total ash, 52 Iu/kg vitamin E, 9.7 Iu/g vitamin A, and 2.200 mg/kg taurine (dry basis). Mineral content of the same food item was: 1.9% Ca. 10.0 mg/kg Cu, 645.2 m& Fe, 0.089 Mg. 22.6 rns/kg Mn, 1.3% P, 0.4% Na, and 127.8 mg/kg Zn. Nutrient levels, except vitamin E (and possibly Mg), met or exceeded recommendations established for domestic felids. Plasma a-tocopherol, retinol, and taurine (18.1, 1.82, 128.4 mol/L, respectively) concentrations were similar to normaIs for domestic felids, as were mean plasma mineral levels (n = 81: in mEq/L: 5.64 (Ca). 0.03 (Cu), 0.03 (Fe), 2.0 (Mg), 166.0 (Na). 12.3 (P), and 0.026 (Zn)). No gross physiological or dietary nutrient imbalances were evident from this survey.

Dierenfeld_1993_Nutrition_of_captive_cheetahs.pdf

Dilley B, Davies D. 1998. Update on Namibia Carnivore Monitoring Project. AfriCat-Newsletter - Namibian Carnivore Monitoring Project, 4-6.

News from the Namibian carnivore monitoring project. In early September 1998 they started a mark-recapture project of cheetahs with the aim of calculating a cheetah population density for Namibia. Since the start of the project 20 cheetahs have been caught.

Dilley_&_Davies_1998_Namibian_carnivore_monitoring_project.pdf

DiSabato LRSA. 1981. Aberrant coat pattern found in African Cheetah. San Antonio's News from the Zoo 7, 1-2.

In 1927 Major Cooper described a new species of cheetah Acinonyx rex. Our present knowledge of "King Cheetah" is limited to some skins and only six have been seen alive. 1981 a King Cheetah with this unusual appearance was born in captivity from an Acinonyx jubatus mother. Breeding programme with King Cheetah are planned.

DiSabato_1981_Aberrant_coat_pattern_found_in_african_cheetah.pdf

Divyabhanusinh. 1984. The origin, range and status of the Asiatic (or Indian) cheetah or hunting leopard (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) - A Tentative Position Paper. In Jackson P. (ed). The Plight of the Cats. Meeting and Workshop of the IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group at Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh, India, 9-12 April 1984, pp. 183-195.

Some wildlife experts and naturalists have voiced an opinion that Asiatic (or Indian) cheetah was not native to the Indian sub-continent but that it was introduced by the earlier Muslim invaders, or later by the Mughals, in order to keep them animals in captivity and use them for the sport of hunting. But there is no evidence for this hypothesis of origin. The cheetah has been present in India since pre-historic times. Not only India has lost the cheetah, but also the Arabian peninsula, and the rest of the Asiatic range countries.

Divyabhanusinh_1984_Status_of_Asiatic_cheetah.pdf

Divyabhanusinh. 1987. Record of two unique observations of the Indian cheetah in Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri.
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 84, 269-274.

Record of a white cheetah and of a successful breeding in India in the 17^th century .

Divyabhanusinh_1987_Indian_cheetah_in_Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri.pdf

Divyabhanusinh C. 1994. A note on the cheetah.
Report for the Indian Sub-group, SSC, IUCN meet.ing on 30/31 July 1994, New Delhi. 5 pp.

A decade of research of the cheetah in the subcontinent has just been completed by the authors. It has revealed interesting aspects of the cheetah's history life in the Indian subcontinent some of which are summarized. The findings of the research will serve the purpose of offering to the interested scientists and others, a part of the vast knowledge that exists in India of the cheetah.

Divyabhanusinh_1994_A_Note_on_the_Cheetah.pdf

Divyabhanusinh. 1994. The Cheetah in India. Cat News 21, 17.

A search through prehistoric records, classical Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and Persian records has revealed many interesting aspects of the cheetah's brush with man in India. For nearly a thousand years cheetahs were systematically captured for royal sport, which depleted their numbers in their natural habitat and also made it difficult for their young ones to survive as the females were being captured too. No serious attempt to re-introduce the cheetah has been made in India so far. Re-introduction would be possible if there were political will to restore grasslands and protect the existing prey base prior to a such an attempt.

Divyabhanusinh_1994_The_Cheetah_in_India.pdf

Divyabhanusinh. 1995. On trapping, training, treatment of and hunting with cheetahs. In Divyabhanusinh (ed). The end of a trail - the cheetah in India. Bayan Books, New Dehli.

The information contained in this chapter is primarily based on documents written towards the end of the cheetah's existence in India. They are the last repositories of the accounts of interactions between humans and cheetahs for the purpose of sport.

Divyabhanusinh_1995_On_trapping_training_treatment_of_and_hunting_with_cheetahs.pdf

Divyabhanusinh. 1995. A note on the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). International Cheetah Studbook 1994 - 95, pp L 73-L 75.

A search trough prehistoric findings, classical Greek and Latin, Sanskrit, Persian and British records have revealed many interesting aspects of the cheetah's cohabitation with the man.

Divyabhanusinh_1995_Cheetah.pdf

Dollinger P. 1982. Order Carnivora - Family Felidae - Acinonyx jubatus.

Fact sheet for Appendix I species of CITES submitted by the Management Authority of Switzerland. It contains information on the species morphology, distribution, trade, intraspecific variation and similar species.

Dollinger_1982_Felidae_-_Acinonyx_jubatus.pdf

Fact sheet for Appendix I species of CITES submitted by the Management Authority of Switzerland. It contains information on the species morphology, distribution, trade, intraspecific variation and similar species.

Donlan_2007_Restoring_Americas_big_wild_animals.pdf

Donoghue AM, Howard JG, Byers AP, Goodrowe KL, Bush M, Blumer E, Lukas J, Stover J, Snodgrass K, Wildt DE. 1992. Correlation of sperm viability with gamete interaction and fertilization in vitro in the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). Biology of Reproduction 46, 1047-1056.

Sperm-oocyte interaction in vitro was studied in the cheetah, a species known to produce poor quality ejaculates and to experience low rates of fertility. Twelve female cheetahs were injected (i.m.) with eCG followed by hCG 84 h later. Twenty-four to 26 h post hCG, each was subjected to laparoscopic oocyte aspiration. A sperm motility index (SMI) was calculated for each of 9 cheetah sperm donors that produced ejaculates averaging 41.3  +/- 22.9 x 10(6) motile sperm and 28.4 +/- 4.9% structurally normal sperm. Although sperm pleiomorphisms may contribute to poor reproductive performance, examination of the data on the basis of individual sperm donors reveals that effective gamete interaction in the cheetah is dictated, in part, by sperm motility.

Donoghue_et_al_1992_In_vitro_fertilization_in_the_cheetah.pdf

Dorfman L. 2005. Bonding with mother-reared cheetahs. Animal Keeper's Forum 7/8, 384-385.

We received two cheetah cubs (Acinonyx jubatus), a male and female, when they were weaned from their mother at four months of age. They had very limited contact with humans prior to their being weaned. Since we are a sanctuary and our mission is to give our resident cats the best possible quality of life in captivity, we embarked on a program to acclimate these cubs to human contact in order to alleviate the stress that would otherwise be caused by human proximity in the course of their care.

Dorfman_2005_Bonding_with_mother_reared_cheetahs.pdf

Dragesco-Joffé A. 1993. Le Guépard saharien, un Félin égaré en enfer. In La Vie Sauvage du Sahara. Delachaux et Niestlé, Lausanne. Pp. 119-126.

In the 1980s, I spent several months with the aim to search and observe the North African's cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus hecki) in Niger. I found 42 tracks, but I encountered only 8 individuals.  I prospected an area of  275000 km², from the Aïr mountains to Talak and Azaouak plains and the sandy areas of Ténéré. Signs of their presence were found everywhere, but in small numbers. In a 9700 km² sector of the Ténéré desert, I estimated a population of 50 individuals, giving a cheetah density of about one individual per 194 km². 90% of the signs indicated coalitions of cheetahs. I found a group of 6 individuals and two times a group of 5 individuals, but the mean number was 3 cheetahs. The behaviour of the cheetah in this region was quite different from the southern part of Africa and it appears that the stress of a close encounter with people can cause severe trembling and even the death of an animal. Populations in open areas appear to be more vulnerable, while cheetahs in mountainous regions are more protected from easy access by people. The local fauna is perceived in a very simplistic way and predators are killed at the first opportunity.

Dragesco-Joffe_1993_Saharian_Cheetah_English.pdf

Dragesco-Joffé A. 1993. La vie sauvage au Sahara. Cat News 19, 27-28.

Alain Dragesco-Joffé decided in 1982 to concentrate on documenting Saharan wildlife. The result of 10 years intensive work has now been published in a spectacular coffee table book, packed with first-hand observation and laced with breath-taking photos of mammals, birds and reptiles. Cat specialists will turn immediately to accounts of cheetah, sandcat, wildcat and caracal. All are informative, but the cheetah steals the show in a chapter subtitled "A Cat lost in Hell". Several photos support that the Saharan cheetah (Acinnonyx jubatus hecki) seems to be very different from those of the rest of Africa, both in size and coat colour. Dragesco-Joffé estimates that between 300 and 500 cheetahs remain in the Sahara, most of them in Mali, Niger and Chad, with others probably north of the Hoggar, in Algeria.

Dragesco-Joffe_1993_Saharian_Cheetah_French.pdf

Dresser, B.L. 1985. Possible cause of infertility in captive cheetah. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums. Pp. 558-559.

High levels of estrogen were found in commercial exotic feline diet. These exogenous estrogens were determined to be biologically active. The estrogenic effects on the liver and female reproduction observed in the cheetah appear to be reversible after a change in the diet.

Dresser_et_al_1985_Possible_cause_of_infertility_in_captive_cheetah.pdf

During a trip to the Adrar des Iforas in Mali in 1999, no confirmed presence of the cheetah was found. However, a series of reported observations leave some hope that the species still exists in Mali in the region of Kidal in the northeast of the country close to the border to Algeria.

Drieux-Dumont_2002_Status_of_the_Sahara_cheetah.pdf

This article on the status and conservation of the North and West African cheetah gives results of the interviews conducted by the author in Niger near officers of Ministry of Environment and of the National Nature Reserve of the Aïr Ténéré and the field session in Termit Mountains.

Cette article sur le statut et la conservation du guépard au Nord et à l'Ouest de l'Afrique donne les résultats des enquêtes conduites par l'auteur au Niger, auprès des officiers du Ministère de l'Environnement et de la Réserve Nationale Naturelle de l'Aïr Ténéré et la mission de terrain dans les montagnes du Termit.

Drieux_&_Claro_2002_Cheetahs_in_North_and_West_Africa.pdf

Drolet CA. 1990. Biological survey of Nigeria. A program development submitted to the IUCN. Part of the report, 9 pp.

The cheetah is mentioned in the list of the species presents in Nigeria and classified as Vulnerable.
 

Le guépard est mentionné dans la liste des espèces présentes au Nigeria et est classée vulnérable.

Drolet_1990_Biological_survey_of_Nigeria.pdf

Thirty cheetah were transported from Windhoek to the Etosha National Park in exchange for zebras. All but two survived the journey and one died at a later date from causes not connected with the transportation.

du_Preez_1970_Feeding_and_release_of_30_cheetah_in_Etosha.pdf

Aside biological, ecological and behavioural considerations, the contemporary status of the cheetah in India is discussed.

Dunbar_Brander_1934_Wild_animals_of_the_Indian_empire_-Cheetah.pdf

Short description about cheetahs biology and occurrence in Asia and Africa.

Duplaix_&_Simon_-_Cheetah_World_guide_to_Mammals.pdf

Dupuy has carried out several field surveys in Algeria, and provides a list of threatened wildlife in the country. The cheetah formerly ranged over a large part of Algerian Sahara and Atlas high plateau. By 1966, their range was limited to Hoggar, Tassili N' Ajjer and Tindouf area, where cheetah was uncommon. Dupuy observed three distinct cheetah spoors in Fort-Gardel Oued in 1964, and reported cheetah observations in Northern Mouydir (1964) and at Tadjemout in 1965.

Dupuy a mené plusieurs inventaires en Algérie et fournit par conséquent une liste de la faune sauvage menacée dans ce pays. Le guépard était auparavant réparti sur une grande partie du Sahara algérien et le haut plateau de l'Atlas. En 1966, sa répartition était limitée au Hoggar, au Tassili N'Ajjer et à la région de Tindouf, où il était rare. Dupuy a observé trois empreintes distinctes de guépards dans l'oued Fort-Gardel en 1964, et rapporte des observations de guépard dans la partie nord du Mouydir (1964) et au lieu-dit Tadjemout en 1965.

Dupuy_1966_Threatened_fauna_of_Algeria.pdf

Dupuy AR. 1967. Répartition actuelle des espèces menacees de l'Algérie: Cheetah.
Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles et Physiques du Maroc 47(3&4), 358-369.

The cheetah formerly ranged over a large part of Algerian Sahara and Atlas high plateau. By 1967, their range was limited to Hoggar, Tassili N'Ajjer and Tindouf area, where cheetah was uncommon. A distribution map of cheetah is provided.

Le guépard était auparavant réparti sur une grande partie du Sahara algérien et le haut plateau de l'Atlas. En 1967, sa répartition était limitée au Hoggar, au Tassili N' Ajjer et à la région de Tindouf, où il était rare. Une carte de répartition du guépard est fournie.

Dupuy_1967_Status_and_distribution_of_the_cheetah_in_Algeria.pdf

Dupuy updates the mammal list of Niokolo-Koba National Park (Senegal). The presence of cheetah and golden cat still needs to be proved.

Dupuy met à jour la liste des mammifères du Parc National de Niokolo-Koba (Sénégal). La présence du guépard et du chat doré dans ce parc reste à prouver.

Dupuy_1969_Mammals_of_Niokolo-Koba_NP_Senegal.pdf

This paper focuses on the history of the  Niokolo-Koba National Park (Senegal), its organization, tourist activities, and research. Regular surveys carried out by park staff since 1967 allowed adding 14 new mammal species to the list of species occurring in the park, including cheetah. However, this species was regarded as very rare.

Cet article se concentre sur l'histoire, l'organisation, les activités touristiques et la recherche au Parc National de Niokolo-Koba (Sénégal). Des inventaires réguliers menés par le personnel du parc depuis 1967 a permis d'ajouter 14 nouvelles espèces de mammifères à la liste des espèces présentes dans le parc, incluant le guépard. Cependant, l'espèce est décrite comme très rare.

Dupuy_1971_The_Niokolo-Koba_NP_Senegal.pdf

Dupuy describes the Djoudj delta habitat (Northern Senegal) and provides a list of birds and mammals observed during field surveys. Cheetah was considered as very uncommon in the area, and Dupuy never detected any sign of occurrence, but a local hunter told the author that a cheetah would have been observed in the Djoudj delta in 1968.

Dupuy décrit l'habitat du delta de Djoudj (nord du Sénégal) et fournit une liste des oiseaux et mammifères observés pendant les inventaires. Le guépard était considéré comme très rare dans cette région, et Dupuy n'a jamais détecté de signes de présence, mais un chasseur local a rapporté à l'auteur qu'un guépard aurait été observé dans le delta de Djoudj en 1968.

Dupuy_1971_Birds_and_mammals_of_Djoudj_Park_Senegal.pdf

Dupuy AR. 1984. Note sur le statut actuel de quelques mammifères sauvages du Sahel nord-Sénégalais.
Mammalia 48, 599-603.

This paper focuses on the status of some wild mammals occurring in Northern Senegal. According to local inhabitants, cheetah would have gone extinct recently while he could have survived in some areas in Ferlo (a cheetah seem to have been observed in 1981 at Yare-Lao).

Cet article se concentre sur le statut des mammifères sauvages présents dans le nord du Sénégal. Selon les habitants, le guépard se serait éteint récemment mais il pourrait survivre dans certaines régions du Ferlo (un guépard aurait été observé en 1981 à Yare-Lao).

Dupuy_1984_Status_of_some_mammals_in_North-Senegal.pdf

Durant S. 1998. Is bush country the key to the cheetah's survival in Africa. Cat News 28,14-15.

In this study female cheetahs in woodland areas of the Serengeti were radio collared and closely monitored to assess their cubs' survival and see if their survival rate is higher than in open plains. The results are essential for the determination of the best areas for cheetah conservation and for the understanding of factors limiting the numbers of cheetahs.

Durant_1998_Bush_Country_for_Cheetah_Survival_CatNews_28.pdf

Durant S. 2004. Survival of the Fastest - The Cheetahs of Serengeti. Africa Geographic, June 2004, 30-33.

The cheetah is the most endangered large cat in Africa. The key to conserving it rests largely outside protected areas where most of Africa's cheetahs remain. In Tanzania the long-running Serengeti Cheetah Project is active in cheetah research and protection measures. The low population density of cheetahs, both inside and outside protected areas, makes them particularly vulnerable to the impact of habitat loss and fragmentation. Increasingly fragmented, cheetah populations become vulnerable to inbreeding and the loss of genetic diversity.The human/carnivore conflict is a growing issue in Tanzania, as it is elsewhere in Africa. Where the traditional pastoral lifestyle is disappearing and modern livestock practices pertain, the emphasis is placed on the eradication of the predators.

Durant_2004_Survival_of_Serengeti_cheetahs.pdf

Durant S. 2005. Candid Camera - Surveying and conserving carnivores in Tanzania. Lifewatch, summer 2005, 21-22.

In 2002, The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) established the Tanzania Carnivore Programme (TCP).Tanzania is a vast country with limited infrastructure and communication, and despite a wide network of volunteer contributors supplying information on carnivore sightings, huge areas remain without even basic information about carnivore species distribution. For this reason, TCP initiated in December 2004 its own survey programme. Two professional advisors started to design surveys with camera traps and trained the TCP team. First surveys took place in Kilimanjaro and Tarangire National Park. Films came back showing lions, leopards, genets, caracals, spotted hyenas, aardwolves, zorillas, honey badgers, wild cats, mongooses and lots of servals. Photos will be put onto our database and all information gathered by the TCP will be used to establish a Carnivore Conservation Action Plan for Tanzania that will summarise information on each species and establish conservation priorities.

Durant_2005_Surveying_and_conserving_carnivores_in_Tanzania.pdf

Durant SM. Cheetahs and Tourism - The Serengeti Cheetah Project Arusha, Tanzania: Serengeti Cheetah Project; 5 pp.

The cheetah is undoubtedly one of the most outstanding attractions for tourists visiting the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania. Of all the predator cats, however, the cheetah is most vulnerable to tourism. It is also the most endangered. Cheetah have diumal hunting habits. They are shy, but often occur in open habitats where they are easily found. These factors render them susceptible to the pressures of tourism. Excessive tourists numbers and poor wildlife observation practices can affect their hunting success, reproductive success, and cub mortality. However, many of the negative effects of tourism on wildlife, particularly cheetahs, can be avoided provided tourists and their guides behave responsibly towards these elegant cats. As cheetahs lose habitat and become increasingly confined to protected areas, responsible practices by tourists and guides will be crucial to their continued survival and success. This proposal seeks support in the way of air travel for a campaign aimed at heightening the awareness of tour drivers and tourists as to the plight of the cheetah within the Serengeti Ecosystem. Tour guides will be provided with intensive information and education sessions to enable them to understand the impact their wildlife viewing practices have on cheetahs. Ways of minimizing these impacts will be stressed, and information provided to give guides/drivers more opportunities to maximize the cheetah watching opportunities with their clients. Tourists will be targeted simultaneously with the sale of cheetah watch kits. Each kit will provide visitors with up to date, accurate information on the natural history of cheetahs, along with details of protocol to follow when observing cheetah. Proceeds from the sale of these kits will finance their re-supply and on-going education activities in the Serengeti.

Durant_-_Cheetahs_and_tourism.pdf

Durant SM, Caro TM, Collins DA, Alawi RM, FitzGibbon CD. 1988. Migration patterns of Thomson's gazelles and cheetahs on the Serengeti Plains. African Journal of Ecology 26, 257-268.

Monthly changes in abundance of Thomson's gazelles at 142 locations on the Serengeti Plains are presented over a 3 1/2 year period. Numbers of gazelles on the eastern plains were strongly correlated with rainfall, whereas numbers in the central and western plains appeared to be related to other variables. Movements of female cheetahs and non-resident male cheetahs corresponded closely to the movements of Thomson's gazelles but those of resident male cheetahs remained relatively independent of the gazelle migration.

Durant_et_al_1988_Migration_patterns_of_Thomsons_gazelles_and_cheetahs.pdf

Durant SM. 1994. Continuation of the cheetah project in the Serengeti National Park - Report to the Serengeti Wildlife Research Institute Arusha, Tanzania: Serengeti Wildlife Research Institute; 14 pp.

Demographic data collected over the last 4 years show that there has been no significant change in cheetah reproduction or in the adult sex ratio, suggesting that the population is roughly stable. Preliminary data presented here suggests that cheetahs were little affected by the epizootic of canine distemper which swept through the lion population during 1994. Results from playback experiments show that cheetahs actively avoid lions and hyenas, this avoidance could explain their distribution patterns on the plains. Furthermore, lion avoidance behaviour strongly influences female reproductive success. Preliminary results from woodlands show that prey species available to cheetah are likely to be different than on the plains, and that hyena density is lower, whilst lion density is probably higher. The single radio collared male cheetah in this area held a territory of only 27km², small by plains standards. There were indications that he was less diurnal than plains cheetahs.

Durant_1994_Continuation_of_the_Cheetah_Project_in_the_Serengeti_NP.pdf

Durant SM. 1998. Competition refuges and coexistence: an example from Serengeti carnivores.
Journal of Animal Ecology 67, 370-386.

In the last two decades predator-prey models have shown that 'refuges', in which prey can seek respite from predation, are crucial for the persistence of prey and predator. This concept is equally applicable to interspecific competition and, in a heterogeneous environment, species with low competitive ability should seek out 'competition refuges' where competition is reduced. Cheetahs have low competitive ability compared with their principal competitors, hyenas and lions, which are directly responsible for their low density. This study uses distribution data collected in the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania over a 4-year period to show that cheetahs are more strongly associated with each other than with their competitors and utilize areas with low-density prey.

Durant_1998_Competition_refuges_and_coexistence.pdf

Durant SM. 1998. Cheetahs of the Serengeti. Lifewatch Summer 2005, 7-8.

Summary of the social and behavioural habits of the Serengeti cheetah, as well as of their hunting skills and diet.

Durant_1998_Cheetahs_of_the_Serengeti.pdf

Durant SM. 1998. With a roar and a whimper. Magazine article, 10-11.

A hi-fi sound system playing recorded lion and hyena's calls was used to learn how cheetah mothers contend with the threat of predators. Results showed that there is a positive relationship between the strength of the female's reaction and the success in the rearing of her cubs and that this relationship was more evident in aged mothers.

Durant_1998_With_a_roar_and_a_whimper.pdf

Durant SM. 2000. Predator avoidance, breeding experience and reproductive success in endangered cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus. Animal Behaviour 60, 121-130.

I examine three hypotheses about predator avoidance behaviour: (1) avoidance increases an individual's reproductive success; (2) avoidance changes with breeding experience according to one of three described models; and (3) any reproductive or experience benefits accrued to individuals by avoidance are reflected in their spatial distribution. These hypotheses were tested on cheetahs which incur substantial juvenile mortality from predation by two larger competitors: spotted hyaenas, Crocuta crocuta, and lions, Panthera leo. To examine avoidance tactics, I played lion and hyaena vocalizations to individual female cheetahs. Lion avoidance increased with the statistical interaction between age and reproductive success, suggesting that it may be a learned behaviour, reinforced by successful reproductive events. This behaviour translated into a nonrandom spatial distribution of cheetahs with the most reproductively successful females found near lower lion densities than less successful females. Hyaena avoidance decreased with the interaction between age and reproductive success, suggesting that it is diminished by successful reproductive events, perhaps because a female cheetah switches from avoidance to using antipredator behaviour as she gets older. Hyaena avoidance behaviour translated into a spatial distribution with the most reproductively successful females found near lower hyaena densities than less successful females; however, younger females were found near lower hyaena densities than older females.

Durant_2000_Predator_avoidance_and_reproductive_success.pdf

Durant SM. 2000. Living with the enemy: avoidance of hyenas and lions by cheethas in the Serengeti.
Behavioral Ecology 11, 624-632.

Predator avoidance is likely to play a strong role in structuring species communities, even where actual mortality due to predation is low. In such systems, mortality may be low because predator avoidance is effective, and if the threat of predation is lifted then entire community structures may be altered. Where competition is intense, then competitor avoidance may have a similar impact on communities. Avoidance behaviors have been documented for a wide range of species, but this is the first attempt to document avoidance behavior within a large carnivore community. Audio playback techniques are used to examine the risk perceived  by cheetahs from their two main competitors that are also their main predators, lions and hyenas. The results from these experiments show that cheetahs actively moved away from lion and hyena playback experiments, compared with dummy playbacks where no sound was played. Cheetahs showed no differences in their responses to playbacks dependent on their sex or reproductive status, suggesting they were responding principally to a competition rather than a predation threat. However, cheetahs were much less likely to hunt after competitor playbacks than after dummy playbacks, and this resulted in a lower kill rate after competitor playbacks, demonstrating that the perceived presence of competitors had a noticeable impact on the foraging rate of cheetahs. Furthermore, while cheetahs moved just as far following lion playbacks as after hyena playbacks, they spent significantly more time looking at the loudspeaker and were less likely to make a kill after lion playbacks, suggesting that cheetahs perceive lions to be a greater threat than hyenas.

Durant_2000_Avoidance_of_hyenas_and_lions_by_cheetahs_in_the_Serengeti.pdf

Durant SM, Kelly M, Caro TM. 2004. Factors affecting life and death in Serengeti cheetahs: environment, age, and sociality. Behavioural Ecology 15, 11-22.

We examined environmental and social factors affecting reproductive success across a 20-year data set of individually known cheetahs on the Serengeti Plains of Tanzania. Because cheetahs are seen infrequently and are not amenable to mark-recapture techniques, we devised a model to estimate time of death for individuals that disappeared from our records. We found that males had markedly lower survival than females. Recruitment was negatively affected by rainfall but positively affected by numbers of Thomson's gazelles, the cheetahs' chief prey. There was a negative association between recruitment and numbers of lions, demonstrating that the high rates of predation observed in previous studies have implications for the dynamics of cheetah populations. Recruitment was related to mother's age, peaking when she reached 6-7 years. Sociality affected survival in two ways. First, adolescents living in temporary sibling groups had higher survival than singletons, particularly males with sisters. Second, adult males living in coalitions had higher survival than singletons in periods when other coalitions were numerous, yet they had lower survival when other coalitions were rare. These results corroborate observations of enhanced prey capture by female adolescents and antipredator benefits for adolescents in groups, as well as competitive advantages for adult males in groups. Furthermore, our findings stress the importance of interactions between environmental and social factors in affecting reproductive success in mammals.

Durant_et_al_2004_Factors_affecting_Serengeti_cheetahs.pdf

Durant S. 2007. Range-wide Conservation Planning for Cheetah and Wild Dog. Cat News 46, 13.

In early February this year the first eastern Africa conservation planning workshop for cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus and wild dogs Lyacon pictus was held in Kenya. This workshop is part of a series aimed at developing accurate maps of populations of both species and establishing regional conservation strategies to encompass their entire range.

Durant_2007_Range-wide_Conservation_Planning_for_Cheetah_and_Wild_Dog.pdf

Durant_et_al_2007_Long-term_studies_the_Serengeti_cheetah_project.pdf

Durant SM, Craft ME, Foley C, Hampson K, Lobora AL, Msuha M, Eblate E, Bukombe J, Mchetto J, Pettorelli N. 2010. Does size matter? An investigation of habitat use across a carnivore assemblage in the Serengeti, Tanzania. Jounral of Animal Ecology 79, 1012-1022.

1. This study utilizes a unique data set covering over 19 000 georeferenced records of species presence collected between 1993 and 2008, to explore the distribution and habitat selectivity of an assemblage of 26 carnivore species in the Serengeti-Ngorongoro landscape in northern Tanzania.2. Two species, the large-spotted genet and the bushy-tailed mongoose, were documented for the first time within this landscape. Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA) was used to examine habitat selectivity for 18 of the 26 carnivore species for which there is sufficient data. Eleven ecogeographical variables (EGVs), such as altitude and habitat type, were used for these analyses.3. The ENFA demonstrated that species differed in their habitat selectivity, and supported the limited ecological information already available for these species, such as the golden jackals' preference for grassland and the leopards' preference for river valleys.4. Two aggregate scores, marginality and tolerance, are generated by the ENFA, and describe each species' habitat selectivity in relation to the suite of EGVs. These scores were used to test the hypothesis that smaller species are expected to be more selective than larger species [Science, 1989, 243, 1145]. Two predictions were tested: Marginality should decrease with body mass; and tolerance should increase with body mass. Our study provided no evidence for either prediction.5. Our results not only support previous analyses of carnivore diet breadth, but also represent a novel approach to the investigation of habitat selection across species assemblages. Our method provides a powerful tool to explore similar questions in other systems and for other taxa.

Durant_et_al_2010_Does_size_matter.pdf

1. Carnivores can have critical impacts on ecosystems, provide economic value through tourism and are often important flagships. However, their biological traits (e.g. low density, cryptic colouration and behaviour) make them difficult to monitor and hence wildlife managers rarely have access to reliable information on population trends, and long-term information at the community level is almost completely lacking.

2. We use data from transect counts in the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania to examine trends in abundance for seven co-existing carnivore species. Distance-based transect counts between 2002 and 2005 are compared with adjusted data from fixed-width transect counts across the same area in 1977 and 1986.

3. Distance-based methods provided density indices for the seven most commonly seen carnivores: lion Panthera leo, spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta, golden jackal Canis aureus, black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, side-striped jackal Canis audustis and bat-eared fox Otocyon megalotis. Detection curves were used to correct estimates fromearlier fixed-width transect counts.

4. Trend analyses detected significant declines in densities of golden and black-backed jackal and bat-eared fox, but found no significant changes in spotted hyaena, lion, cheetah and side-striped jackal.

5. Overall, despite wide confidence intervals, we show that distance-based data can be used effectively to detect long-term trends and provide critical information for conservation managers. Power analysis demonstrated that for the most frequently seen species, spotted hyaena, golden jackal and lion, abrupt declines of up to 20% may be detectable through long-term monitoring; however, for the remaining species, declines of 50%may only be detected half the time.

6. Synthesis and applications. Distance methods provide a tool for rapid counts and monitoring of several species of carnivores simultaneously in suitable habitats and can be combined with historical fixed-width transect counts to test for changes in density. The method can provide key information to managers on long-term population trends and sudden abrupt changes in population size across a carnivore community.

Durant_et_al_2011_Long_term_trends_in_carnivore_abundance_in_the_Serengeti.pdf

Durrant BS. 1988. An integrative approach to reproductin in the captive cheetah. Report, 3 pp.

Detailed evaluation of the history of cheetah reproduction in captivity is prerequisite to defining the questions to be asked and direction the orientation of scientific protocols. Comparison of successful and unsuccessful reproductive attempts will provide valuable insight if the following factors are analyzed: age, housing, mate selection, introdution protocol, estrus, diet, seasonality, necropsy. Cheetahs are the least pugnacious cats in captivity and as such are excellent candidates for non-invasive sample collection techniques which can provide significant information concerning normal and abnormal reproductive function.

Durrant_1988_An_Integrative_Approach_to_Reproduction_in_the_captive_Cheetah.pdf

Durrant BS. 1989. Comprehensive analysis of cryopreservation techniques for semen of the cheetah. Report, 4 pp.

The potential of artificial reproductive techniques of enhance captive propagation of endangered species is a topic of much discussion within the zoo community. The most widely applicable artificial reproduction technique is artificial insemination (AI). It's use makes possible the breeding of physically or behaviorally incompatible pairs and brings together animals separated by space or time. The latter, of course, depends upon semen cryopreservation for transport or long-term storage.
If natural reproduction cannot be stimulated, artificial techniques are empolyed in an increasingly aggressive strategy. Hormonal induction of estrus and ovulation followed by natural breeding and gestation is the least invasive technique and has been successful employed at the Center for Reproduction of Endangered Species (CRES).
Preliminary results in following experiment is encouraging: fresh and cryopreserved cheetah sperm will penetrate ova.

Durrant_1989_Comprehensive_Analysis_of_Cryopreservation_Techniques_for_semen_of_the_Cheetah.pdf

Durrant BS, Millard-Davis S. 2000. Estrus induction studies in captive cheetahs. Cheetah News 10, 8.

The objective of this study was to reinitiate the lost natural cycle of breeding stimuli in the cheetah colony of the San Diego Wild Animal Park. Hormonal and behavioural stimulation of five acyclic females resulted in the birth of four litters and a pregnancy. Three females of them resumed the natural cyclicity.

Durrant_&_Millard-Davis_2000_Estrus_induction_studies_in_captive_cheetas.pdf

Durrant BS, Millard SE, Zimmerman DM, Lindburg DG. 2001. Lifetime semen production in a cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). Zoo Biology 20, 359-366.

Lifetime semen production data provide valuable insight into a species' natural history and biology as well as information about the potential fertility of males at various life stages. An understanding of the ages of sexual maturity, peak sperm production, and gonadal senescence will contribute to the design of species management plans for captive, free-ranging, and reintroduced populations of exotic animals. To describe these life stages in the cheetah, semen was collected biweekly for 13 years from a solitary male beginning at 3 years of age. The 338 ejaculates were obtained non invasively by artificial vagina. Ejaculate volume and sperm motility score, concentration, and normal morphology were recorded. A sperm quality index incorporating all five semen parameters was calculated to facilitate ejaculate comparisons. Polynomial regression analysis revealed a significant effect of age on volume, which increased throughout the animal's lifetime except for a reduction between ages 10 and 12. Concentration was also significantly affected by age and increased from the age of 3 to the age of 10, then decreased. The sperm quality index revealed a significant effect of age as it increased from age 3 to age 8, then declined as the male grew older. The cheetah did not reach peak semen production until age 8 and continued to produce good quality semen for several more years. These data were somewhat unexpected, given the average cheetah life expectancy of approximately 7 years.

Durrant_et_al_2001_Lifetime_semen_production_in_a_cheetah.pdf

Cheetah status: two adult male and one 6 years old female "Giza", who gave birth to 7 kittens on 29th Feb 2003 in her 3rd brood. In one of the 10 weeks old cubs there was observed ataxia for the first time. Preliminary diagnosis based on bacteriological, parasitological and neurological methods. All found pathogens were treated adequately. Additionally, antiviral drug was administered for several days. In order to stop the progressive development of ataxia a neuroprotective drug (CDP-choline) was introduced orally. Neurological reflexes were controlled daily until the improvement of the animals' mobility was achieved.

Dzieduszycki_et_al_2004_Myelopathy_in_cheetah_cubs_treated_with_CDP-choline.pdf