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In recent years, advances in equipment and analytical tools have provided opportunities to unveil several aspects of the jaguar biology and ecology. Here, we made use of the most recent publications to update the knowledge about this iconic species. From Arizona to Northern Argentina, the jaguar “accommodates” its behaviour to survive in a large variety of habitats. However, human modified landscapes have posed a threat for the species’ long-term survival. A deep understanding of the species’ biology and ecology is crucial for the species conservation planning.

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With large tracts of intact forest, very low human population density, and limited
road networks, the Guiana Shield supports jaguar Panthera onca populations across
99% of its historical range. Jaguars inhabit a diversity of forested habitats, from
mangroves to mountain forest, with population density estimates ranging from 1.6
to 6.4 individuals/km². Protected areas cover 30% of the Guiana Shield and potential
prey species are broadly distributed across the jaguar’s current range and do not
constitute a limiting factor to its distribution. Habitat destruction, fragmentation,
and degradation mainly linked to mining, unsustainable logging, land conversion
for intensive agriculture and cattle pastures, retaliatory killing for depredation, and
targeted hunting to supply an illegal trade in jaguar parts represent the primary
threats to jaguar populations. Capacity for, and ability to, manage wildlife and wild
lands must be improved to ensure that the current optimistic outlook for jaguar
populations in the Guiana Shield does not diverge significantly with impending
economic development.

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We analysed the current conservation status of the jaguar in north-western South America (7.14 million km² in total). The area is composed of habitats belonging to three eco-regions: the Andes, the Llanos, and the Amazon. Based on a large set of jaguar presence-absence data and a species distribution model, we estimated the current jaguar range at 4.98 million km², which represents 78.6% of the historical jaguar range in this region. The countries where jaguar range has shrunk most are north-western Venezuela, Ecuador and Colombia. Across the region, protected areas cover 27% of the jaguar range and indigenous territories 25%, with Ecuador having the highest and north-west Venezuela the lowest percentage of jaguar range under protection. Jaguar densities vary across the region, from 0.3 jaguars/100 km² in the driest or most degraded parts to 4.0–7.3 jaguars/100 km in humid, productive, and best-preserved habitats of the Amazon Basin and Venezuelan Llanos. Based on combined density and updated distribution models we estimate a total jaguar population at 105,000 jaguars (95% CRI: 81,200–128,800) for the region, with mean density of 2.1 jaguars/100 km². Jaguar diet varies by habitat, from arboreal mammals and aquatic reptiles (mainly caimans) in the ‘varzea’ floodplain forests of Central Amazon, to large and medium-sized mammals in upland tropical forests and in the Llanos, with peccaries, capybaras, and occasionally livestock being the most important prey species. The main threats for jaguars in the region are deforestation and fragmentation of habitats, human-jaguar conflict, poaching (increasing due to the growing demand for jaguar parts from the Asian market), infrastructure expansion, and mining. The most important conservation goals are to halt deforestation, reduce the killing of jaguars for retaliation and trade, increase the number of protected areas, protect ecological connectivity, improve law enforcement, and implement a better system of environmental education.

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Supporting Online Material

SOM Text T1 and SOM Tables T1, T2

The jaguar has experienced a significant reduction in its global distribution, particularly in south-eastern South America. This chapter conducts an extensive assessment of the jaguar's distribution, population status, and threats in this region, encompassing Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, southern and eastern Bolivia, and south-eastern Brazil. Spanning 8.3 million km², this area contains diverse ecosystems, including tropical forests, grasslands, and wetlands, making it of global conservation significance. To assess jaguar distribution and population size, we employed a comprehensive dataset, expert opinions, and ecological models, categorising jaguar population status into four classes: Extinct, Possibly Extinct, Possibly Extant, and Extant. We estimated that jaguars are extant in 20% of their historical range, with potential existence in an additional 14%, primarily located in fragmented habitat patches. The Pantanal, Northern Chaco, and Chiquitano together emerge as a population stronghold, while the Atlantic Forest, Caatinga, and Eastern Cerrado exhibit lower jaguar occurrence. Country-level assessments indicate that the jaguar is extinct in Uruguay and has decreased extensively in distribution in Argentina and Paraguay. Bolivia retains substantial jaguar populations, particularly in the Chaco, Chiquitano, and Pantanal regions. South-eastern Brazil, despite extensive historic range loss, harbours a significant jaguar population, especially in the Pantanal and Cerrado. Our study underscores the importance of evaluating under-researched regions like the Bolivian Andes, Chiquitano Forest, Humid Chaco, Caatinga, and the Cerrado. Additionally, it highlights the need for conservation efforts in the Pantanal, northern Chaco, and the Chiquitano for the jaguar’s conservation. Moreover, our findings emphasise the urgency to restore populations and connectivity in the Atlantic Forest, the Caatinga, and southern Chaco. Conservation priorities are habitat preservation, the maintenance of prey availability and landscape connectivity, and the reduction of hunting to secure jaguar populations in south-eastern South America.

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Supporting Online Material

SOM Questionnaire

Monitoring species distribution over time and understanding factors and mechanisms that determine it is crucial for effective conservation planning. Weestimated the current jaguar distribution in South America based on a large set of records (2,557) from 2000–2020 and a set of absence points (both field collected and randomly selected from known jaguar absence areas) using a combination of kriging interpolation and logistic regression models. The current jaguar range in South America is estimated at 7.9 million km² which is 6% less than the estimate for 2015 and 23% less than for 2000. The reduction of the jaguar’s South American range has been continuous and relatively rapid. Our logistic regression models show that the decrease in jaguar distribution across South America was mainly driven by increasing deforestation, road density, pasture and farmland area, and human population density. During the last 20 years, negative changes in the jaguar habitat suitability (ranging from minor to major) occurred over various parts of the jaguar’s range, including core areas in the Amazon basin, covering 9.3% of the area of the jaguar range. We also show that different ecological factors drive the distribution of jaguar populations in different eco-regions. Based on this work, we propose a stronger international collaboration in monitoring jaguar populations and conservation efforts and a new approach for estimating species distribution for IUCN Red List assessments.

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Supporting Online Material

SOM Text T1, Figures F1–F2, Tables T1–T3 and Datasets D1–D5

Large parts of the formerly continuous jaguar range have been lost or fragmented. We performed an analysis with Linkage Mapper to evaluate connectivity between all 92 patches of the 2020 jaguar range in South America. We used two Linkage
Mapper tools: (1) the Linkage Paths to calculate the cost-distance values and to
select least-cost paths as potential corridors for jaguar movements and (2) the
Barrier Mapper to identify barriers along the potential corridors. We derived landscape
resistance values necessary for this analysis from the probabilities of jaguar
occurrence estimated with species distribution models. Our analysis indicates that
connectivity for jaguars is still good within the central Amazonian and Guiana Shield
portions of the jaguar’s range. However, outside of this central core, connectivity
between the fragmented jaguar populations is generally poor, e.g. in the Andes,
Llanos, Atlantic Forest, Caatinga, and Cerrado. Barrier sections cover 21% of the
area of potential corridors, and high resistance values were found on 30% of the
corridor area. This situation is worsened by high road density around most barrier
sections of the potential corridors. The Chocó region of north-western Colombia
is likely isolated from the rest of the jaguar range in South America, which means
that jaguar populations of Central America have no or minimal connections with
the Amazonian populations. Similarly, the connectivity between fragmented jaguar
populations in eastern South America (Caatinga, Cerrado, and Atlantic Forest ecoregions) is disrupted at several potential corridors, although some corridors of this
region may still retain some potential to facilitate jaguar movement. Only 9% of the
area of potential corridors are located within protected areas. Our results can guide
planning for jaguar conservation action on a large spatial scale and help focus on
sites where such efforts can be most effective and are most needed.

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Supporting Online Material

SOM Datasets D1–D4

The jaguar Panthera onca is widely distributed throughout South America with its stronghold in the Amazon. It is protected by law in all countries, but some countries have legal loopholes and all lack a strict enforcement of the laws in place. Jaguar killing is common, even in strictly protected areas, but detailed records are lacking. Jaguars have been historically hunted for their pelts, however, inclusion of the species in the CITES Appendix I proved effective to curtail the spotted cat trade in the 1960s and 70s. Over the last few decades, there exists little information on jaguar hunting for trade, but recently reports have surfaced showing increased illegal trafficking of body parts with evidence of domestic and Asiatic demand. Conservation of jaguars in South America has been relatively well-informed by research data. National parks and indigenous lands have been and still are the cornerstones for jaguar conservation throughout the continent, but are hampered, with a few exceptions, by underfunding, understaffing and a lack of governance and political will. Financing the operation of national parks and protected areas, while securing rights of indigenous lands should be a priority for funding agencies, especially in areas where most jaguar populations are restricted to protected areas like Argentina and south-eastern Brazil. In countries where jaguars are still widespread efforts should also be directed toward unprotected areas where threats like habitat loss and killing are higher. There the biggest management challenge is upscaling conflict prevention and mitigation measures. The Jaguar 2030 Roadmap marks a milestone for the species, aiming to join range governments, NGOs and private partners to advance conservation action for jaguars, but getting the initiative off the ground is the current challenge. It is noteworthy to highlight the importance and need for transboundary cooperation and action, especially among the trans-frontier population hotspots. The new, or emerging threats like jaguar part smuggling and man-made fires need extra attention and action to be curtailed. If jaguar conservation is to be effective despite increasing threats, it needs to be streamlined from high level agreements through scalable effects on the ground, combining protected areas, corridors, and local people buy-in.

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Starting in 2010 and accelerating in 2014, reports of trade and seizures of jaguar
parts surfaced from several countries in South America. In this paper we summarise
knowledge to date including official reports, peer-reviewed publications, public
articles, seizure records, online searches, and market surveys in source countries
in South America and big cat consuming countries in Asia. We found widespread
records of domestic use and commerce in jaguar parts, in many cases without
effective enforcement of existing laws to provide a substantial deterrent. We found
less abundant solid records of trade from South America to China, with the exception
of Bolivia where 95.4% of the historic interceptions of jaguar canines were oriented
towards China, and Suriname where seizures in airports testify to international trade.
International trade is particularly onerous as it can drive domestic killing of jaguars
at an increased level due to higher prices and diversified markets. More material may
be shipped to Asian markets than we have detected and we recommend vigilance
in all potential mediums for transport (passenger aircraft, air freight, postal services,
courier services, and marine shipping). We present a summarised review of relevant
legal structures. The depth and breadth of domestic commerce that we recorded
from diverse sources suggest the need for increased enforcement of existing laws,
coupled with behaviour change and livelihood alternatives. All jaguar killing starts at
the local level, and when there is a local national market for jaguar parts there is less
incentive to pursue the means and methods for coexistence already tested and proven in much of the species’ range.

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Jaguars have been managed under human care for centuries for a variety of purposes. Until recently, jaguar management in zoological collections has tended towards a generic style, often to the detriment of species-specific psychological and behavioural considerations. Prospects for the jaguar’s importance as a representative of ecosystems in which it lives, however, have improved. There are now four programmes (ALPZA, JAZA, AZA, and EAZA) that identify population sustainability, best practice animal care and jaguar welfare as primary objectives. Animals have (infrequently) been exchanged among EEP, SSP and ALPZA studbook institutions based on genetic and demographic recommendations. Both the SSP and EEP recognise that their animals serve as refugium populations, against a time when wild jaguars are so few that reintroduction could become necessary. Ex situ conservation includes significant potential to utilise data contained in studbooks and other documentation kept by zoos to inform and support field data and analysis. The EEP and SSP management teams collectively possess decades, if not centuries, of professional expertise with jaguar care and management. Accredited zoos have blended field and ex situ activity for some time as the OnePlan Approach has crystallised. There is reason for optimism: as there is a widening conservation niche for zoos, and a brighter, more robust outlook for jaguars.

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Jaguars in South America are now found in only about half of the area they occupied in the early 20th century, and the rate of their decline is still high. The two most important drivers of the current decline are: a) deforestation and other habitat transformation and fragmentation, and b) killing jaguars related to conflicts with cattle ranching. Other important threats include illegal hunting and trade in jaguar body parts, increasing road density, and the rapid expansion of uncontrolled mining. Among the most important conservation achievements obtained so far are legal regulations that have eliminated legal jaguar hunting and trade in their parts in all countries, and the establishment of a network of protected areas across the jaguar range. The most urgent problems to solve are effective solutions to stop deforestation and stop the killing of jaguars in areas of conflict with cattle ranching. More protected areas are needed; however, it is also necessary to improve the functioning of protected areas. Ecological corridors have to be properly identified and implemented. Other important needs include enforcement of laws to eliminate the illegal jaguar hunting and trade, implementation of a system of environmental education, and the development of ecotourism. A coherent and effective common system of nature protection across South America would help to achieve the conservation goals. A number of international conventions and agreements support the conservation of jaguars, and in the recent years, significant new international initiatives have arisen to elevate the profile of jaguar conservation. We present and discuss needs for research, conservation solutions, and actions to stop the decline of South America’s jaguars.

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